首頁 > 市場調查報告書 > 材料

金屬

市場調查報告書

商品編碼

1675441

2025 年至 2033 年不銹鋼市場（按產品、等級、應用和地區分類）

Stainless Steel Market by Product, Grade, Application, and Region 2025-2033

出版日期: 2025年03月01日 | 出版商:

IMARC | 英文 142 Pages | 商品交期: 2-3個工作天內

價格

簡介目錄圖表

2024IMARC Group全球不鏽鋼市場規模達到 1,637 億美元。建築業對不銹鋼的需求不斷成長、汽車產量和銷售量不斷上升以及正在進行的工業和基礎設施發展活動是推動市場發展的一些關鍵因素。

不銹鋼（SS）是指含鉻量較高的鐵基合金，並含有鎳、鉬、碳和其他金屬等添加元素。合金鉻會分泌出一層薄薄的氧化物或鈍化層，賦予鋼優異的耐腐蝕和耐熱性能。還可以在鋼中添加其他元素，包括鈦、鋁、鈮、銅、氮、硫、磷和硒，以提高其在特定環境下的耐腐蝕性、增強抗氧化性並達到所需的特性。與碳鋼相比，不銹鋼具有優異的性能，例如出色的柔韌性、抗張強度、耐腐蝕性、美觀性、低維護成本、環保性、可回收性和延長產品壽命。因此，不銹鋼在建築、汽車、基礎設施、鐵路和加工工業中得到廣泛的應用。

不鏽鋼市場趨勢：

不銹鋼產品在結構用途（如梁、柱和一般建築應用）的使用量顯著增加。它們廣泛用於欄桿、屋頂、電梯、樓梯、游泳池遮陽棚、天篷和中庭。因此，建築業對不銹鋼的需求不斷成長是推動市場成長的關鍵因素之一。此外，各國政府都在大力投資修復和改造橋樑、高速公路、機場、公共建築和電動車充電設施。同時，基礎設施建設中大量私人和公共資金的投入以及住宅項目數量的增加也促進了市場的成長。此外，不銹鋼在機械、化學和能源領域的應用也在增加，例如石油工業中的管材，發電廠中的熱交換器和鍋爐，以及紙漿和造紙、化學品、食品和飲料行業的加工機械中的零件。與此相符的是，消費品以及汽車、機械和設備零件製造中產品使用量的不斷成長催化了產品需求。此外，一些主要參與者正在採用節能製造流程和新技術來提高生產能力、降低成本和提高效率，從而促進市場成長。其他因素，包括汽車產銷不斷成長、工業和基礎設施發展活動持續進行、電氣和電子行業產品應用不斷增加以及技術不斷進步，也創造了積極的市場前景。

本報告回答的關鍵問題：

全球不銹鋼市場迄今表現如何？
全球不銹鋼市場的促進因素、限制因素和機會有哪些？
每個促進因素、限制因素和機會對全球不銹鋼市場有何影響？
主要的區域市場有哪些？
哪些國家代表最具吸引力的不銹鋼市場？
根據產品，市場如何分類？
不銹鋼市場上哪種產品最吸引人？
根據等級，市場是如何分類的？
不銹鋼市場上最具吸引力的等級是哪一個？
根據應用，市場區隔是怎樣的？
不銹鋼市場中最吸引人的應用是什麼？
全球不銹鋼市場的競爭格局是怎麼樣的？
全球不銹鋼市場的主要參與者/公司有哪些？

市場結構
關鍵參與者
關鍵參與者簡介
- Acerinox SA
- Aperam SA
- ArcelorMittal SA
- Baosteel Group
- JFE Steel Corporation (JFE Holdings Inc.)
- Jindal Stainless Limited
- Nippon Steel Corporation
- Outokumpu Oyj
- POSCO Products
- thyssenkrupp Stainless GmbH (ThyssenKrupp AG)
- Yieh United Steel Corp.

簡介目錄圖表

Product Code: SR112025A7257

The global stainless steel market size reached USD 163.7 Billion in 2024. Looking forward, IMARC Group expects the market to reach USD 261.5 Billion by 2033, exhibiting a growth rate (CAGR) of 5.08% during 2025-2033. The rising demand for stainless steel from the building and construction sector, escalating automotive production and sales, and ongoing industrial and infrastructure development activities represent some of the key factors driving the market.

Stainless steel (SS) refers to an iron-based alloy with a high chromium content and additional elements, such as nickel, molybdenum, carbon, and other metals. The alloyed chromium secretes a thin layer of oxide, or a passive layer, which imparts excellent corrosion and heat resistance properties to the steel. Other elements, including titanium, aluminum, niobium, copper, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and selenium, can be added to the steel to improve its corrosion resistance to specific environments, enhance oxidation resistance, and attain desired characteristics. Compared to carbon steel, SS offers superior properties, such as excellent flexibility, tensile strength, corrosion resistance, aesthetic appeal, low maintenance costs, environment-friendliness, recyclability, and extended product life. As a result, stainless steel finds extensive applications across the construction, automotive, infrastructure, railways, and process industries.

Stainless Steel Market Trends:

There has been a significant increase in the use of stainless steel products for structural purposes, such as beams, columns, and general architectural applications. They are widely employed in railings, roofing, lifts, staircases, swimming pool shades, canopies, and atriums. Consequently, the rising demand for stainless steel from the building and construction sector represents one of the key factors driving the market growth. Moreover, governments of various nations are making heavy investments in repairing and renovating bridges, highways, airports, public buildings, and electric vehicle (EV) charging facilities. Along with this, extensive private and public funding in infrastructure development and the increasing number of residential housing projects are contributing to the market growth. Additionally, there is an increase in the mechanical, chemical, and energy applications of stainless steel, such as tubular in the oil industry, heat exchangers and boilers in power plants, and components in processing machinery of pulp and paper, chemicals, and food and beverage sectors. In line with this, growing product usage in manufacturing consumer goods and parts for automobiles, machinery, and equipment has catalyzed product demand. Furthermore, several key players are adopting energy-efficient manufacturing processes and novel technologies to improve production capacities, reduce costs, and enhance efficiency, thereby contributing to market growth. Other factors, including escalating automotive production and sales, ongoing industrial and infrastructure development activities, rising product applications in the electrical and electronics industries, and continual technological advancements, are also creating a positive market outlook.

Key Market Segmentation:

Product Insights:

Flat
Long

Grade Insights:

200 Series
300 Series
400 Series
Duplex Series
Others

Application Insights:

Automotive and Transportation
Building and Construction
Consumer Goods
Mechanical Engineering and Heavy Industries
Others

Regional Insights:

North America
United States
Canada
Asia-Pacific
China
Japan
India
South Korea
Australia
Indonesia
Others
Europe
Germany
France
United Kingdom
Italy
Spain
Russia
Others
Latin America
Brazil
Mexico
Others
Middle East and Africa
The report has also provided a comprehensive analysis of all the major regional markets, which include North America (the United States and Canada); Europe (Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, Russia, and others); Asia Pacific (China, Japan, India, South Korea, Australia, Indonesia, and others); Latin America (Brazil, Mexico, and others); and the Middle East and Africa. According to the report, Asia Pacific was the largest market for stainless steel. Some of the factors driving the Asia Pacific stainless steel market included its significant economic growth, heavy investments in energy and infrastructure, rapid expansion in the automotive, machinery, and shipbuilding industries, etc.

Competitive Landscape:

The report has also provided a comprehensive analysis of the competitive landscape in the global stainless steel market. Competitive analysis such as market structure, market share by key players, player positioning, top winning strategies, competitive dashboard, and company evaluation quadrant has been covered in the report. Also, detailed profiles of all major companies have been provided. Some of the companies covered include Acerinox S.A., Aperam S.A., ArcelorMittal S.A., Baosteel Group, JFE Steel Corporation (JFE Holdings Inc.), Jindal Stainless Limited, Nippon Steel Corporation, Outokumpu Oyj, POSCO Products, thyssenkrupp Stainless GmbH (ThyssenKrupp AG), Yieh United Steel Corp., etc.

Key Questions Answered in This Report:

How has the global stainless steel market performed so far, and how will it perform in the coming years?
What are the drivers, restraints, and opportunities in the global stainless steel market?
What is the impact of each driver, restraint, and opportunity on the global stainless steel market?
What are the key regional markets?
Which countries represent the most attractive stainless steel market?
What is the breakup of the market based on the product?
Which is the most attractive product in the stainless steel market?
What is the breakup of the market based on the grade?
Which is the most attractive grade in the stainless steel market?
What is the breakup of the market based on the application?
Which is the most attractive application in the stainless steel market?
What is the competitive structure of the global stainless steel market?
Who are the key players/companies in the global stainless steel market?

1 Preface

2 Scope and Methodology

2.1 Objectives of the Study
2.2 Stakeholders
2.3 Data Sources
- 2.3.1 Primary Sources
- 2.3.2 Secondary Sources
2.4 Market Estimation
- 2.4.1 Bottom-Up Approach
- 2.4.2 Top-Down Approach
2.5 Forecasting Methodology

3 Executive Summary

4 Introduction

4.1 Overview
4.2 Key Industry Trends

5 Global Stainless Steel Market

5.1 Market Overview
5.2 Market Performance
5.3 Impact of COVID-19
5.4 Market Forecast

6 Market Breakup by Product

6.1 Flat
- 6.1.1 Market Trends
- 6.1.2 Market Forecast
6.2 Long
- 6.2.1 Market Trends
- 6.2.2 Market Forecast

7 Market Breakup by Grade

7.1 200 Series
- 7.1.1 Market Trends
- 7.1.2 Market Forecast
7.2 300 Series
- 7.2.1 Market Trends
- 7.2.2 Market Forecast
7.3 400 Series
- 7.3.1 Market Trends
- 7.3.2 Market Forecast
7.4 Duplex Series
- 7.4.1 Market Trends
- 7.4.2 Market Forecast
7.5 Others
- 7.5.1 Market Trends
- 7.5.2 Market Forecast

8 Market Breakup by Application

8.1 Automotive and Transportation
- 8.1.1 Market Trends
- 8.1.2 Market Forecast
8.2 Building and Construction
- 8.2.1 Market Trends
- 8.2.2 Market Forecast
8.3 Consumer Goods
- 8.3.1 Market Trends
- 8.3.2 Market Forecast
8.4 Mechanical Engineering and Heavy Industries
- 8.4.1 Market Trends
- 8.4.2 Market Forecast
8.5 Others
- 8.5.1 Market Trends
- 8.5.2 Market Forecast

9 Market Breakup by Region

9.1 North America
- 9.1.1 United States
  - 9.1.1.1 Market Trends
  - 9.1.1.2 Market Forecast
- 9.1.2 Canada
  - 9.1.2.1 Market Trends
  - 9.1.2.2 Market Forecast
9.2 Asia-Pacific
- 9.2.1 China
  - 9.2.1.1 Market Trends
  - 9.2.1.2 Market Forecast
- 9.2.2 Japan
  - 9.2.2.1 Market Trends
  - 9.2.2.2 Market Forecast
- 9.2.3 India
  - 9.2.3.1 Market Trends
  - 9.2.3.2 Market Forecast
- 9.2.4 South Korea
  - 9.2.4.1 Market Trends
  - 9.2.4.2 Market Forecast
- 9.2.5 Australia
  - 9.2.5.1 Market Trends
  - 9.2.5.2 Market Forecast
- 9.2.6 Indonesia
  - 9.2.6.1 Market Trends
  - 9.2.6.2 Market Forecast
- 9.2.7 Others
  - 9.2.7.1 Market Trends
  - 9.2.7.2 Market Forecast
9.3 Europe
- 9.3.1 Germany
  - 9.3.1.1 Market Trends
  - 9.3.1.2 Market Forecast
- 9.3.2 France
  - 9.3.2.1 Market Trends
  - 9.3.2.2 Market Forecast
- 9.3.3 United Kingdom
  - 9.3.3.1 Market Trends
  - 9.3.3.2 Market Forecast
- 9.3.4 Italy
  - 9.3.4.1 Market Trends
  - 9.3.4.2 Market Forecast
- 9.3.5 Spain
  - 9.3.5.1 Market Trends
  - 9.3.5.2 Market Forecast
- 9.3.6 Russia
  - 9.3.6.1 Market Trends
  - 9.3.6.2 Market Forecast
- 9.3.7 Others
  - 9.3.7.1 Market Trends
  - 9.3.7.2 Market Forecast
9.4 Latin America
- 9.4.1 Brazil
  - 9.4.1.1 Market Trends
  - 9.4.1.2 Market Forecast
- 9.4.2 Mexico
  - 9.4.2.1 Market Trends
  - 9.4.2.2 Market Forecast
- 9.4.3 Others
  - 9.4.3.1 Market Trends
  - 9.4.3.2 Market Forecast
9.5 Middle East and Africa
- 9.5.1 Market Trends
- 9.5.2 Market Breakup by Country
- 9.5.3 Market Forecast

10 Drivers, Restraints, and Opportunities

10.1 Overview
10.2 Drivers
10.3 Restraints
10.4 Opportunities

11 Value Chain Analysis

12 Porters Five Forces Analysis

12.1 Overview
12.2 Bargaining Power of Buyers
12.3 Bargaining Power of Suppliers
12.4 Degree of Competition
12.5 Threat of New Entrants
12.6 Threat of Substitutes

13 Price Analysis

14 Competitive Landscape

14.1 Market Structure
14.2 Key Players
14.3 Profiles of Key Players
- 14.3.1 Acerinox S.A
  - 14.3.1.1 Company Overview
  - 14.3.1.2 Product Portfolio
  - 14.3.1.3 Financials
- 14.3.2 Aperam S.A.
  - 14.3.2.1 Company Overview
  - 14.3.2.2 Product Portfolio
  - 14.3.2.3 Financials
- 14.3.3 ArcelorMittal S.A.
  - 14.3.3.1 Company Overview
  - 14.3.3.2 Product Portfolio
  - 14.3.3.3 Financials
  - 14.3.3.4 SWOT Analysis
- 14.3.4 Baosteel Group
  - 14.3.4.1 Company Overview
  - 14.3.4.2 Product Portfolio
- 14.3.5 JFE Steel Corporation (JFE Holdings Inc.)
  - 14.3.5.1 Company Overview
  - 14.3.5.2 Product Portfolio
- 14.3.6 Jindal Stainless Limited
  - 14.3.6.1 Company Overview
  - 14.3.6.2 Product Portfolio
  - 14.3.6.3 Financials
- 14.3.7 Nippon Steel Corporation
  - 14.3.7.1 Company Overview
  - 14.3.7.2 Product Portfolio
  - 14.3.7.3 Financials
  - 14.3.7.4 SWOT Analysis
- 14.3.8 Outokumpu Oyj
  - 14.3.8.1 Company Overview
  - 14.3.8.2 Product Portfolio
  - 14.3.8.3 Financials
  - 14.3.8.4 SWOT Analysis
- 14.3.9 POSCO Products
  - 14.3.9.1 Company Overview
  - 14.3.9.2 Product Portfolio
- 14.3.10 thyssenkrupp Stainless GmbH (ThyssenKrupp AG)
  - 14.3.10.1 Company Overview
  - 14.3.10.2 Product Portfolio
- 14.3.11 Yieh United Steel Corp.
  - 14.3.11.1 Company Overview
  - 14.3.11.2 Product Portfolio
  - 14.3.11.3 Financials

Kindly note that this only represents a partial list of companies, and the complete list has been provided in the report.

簡介目錄圖表

List of Figures

Figure 1: Global: Stainless Steel Market: Major Drivers and Challenges
Figure 2: Global: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Billion USD), 2019-2024
Figure 3: Global: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Billion USD), 2025-2033
Figure 4: Global: Stainless Steel Market: Breakup by Product (in %), 2024
Figure 5: Global: Stainless Steel Market: Breakup by Grade (in %), 2024
Figure 6: Global: Stainless Steel Market: Breakup by Application (in %), 2024
Figure 7: Global: Stainless Steel Market: Breakup by Region (in %), 2024
Figure 8: Global: Stainless Steel (Flat) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 9: Global: Stainless Steel (Flat) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 10: Global: Stainless Steel (Long) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 11: Global: Stainless Steel (Long) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 12: Global: Stainless Steel (200 Series) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 13: Global: Stainless Steel (200 Series) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 14: Global: Stainless Steel (300 Series) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 15: Global: Stainless Steel (300 Series) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 16: Global: Stainless Steel (400 Series) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 17: Global: Stainless Steel (400 Series) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 18: Global: Stainless Steel (Duplex Series) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 19: Global: Stainless Steel (Duplex Series) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 20: Global: Stainless Steel (Other Grades) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 21: Global: Stainless Steel (Other Grades) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 22: Global: Stainless Steel (Automotive and Transportation) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 23: Global: Stainless Steel (Automotive and Transportation) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 24: Global: Stainless Steel (Building and Construction) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 25: Global: Stainless Steel (Building and Construction) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 26: Global: Stainless Steel (Consumer Goods) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 27: Global: Stainless Steel (Consumer Goods) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 28: Global: Stainless Steel (Mechanical Engineering and Heavy Industries) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 29: Global: Stainless Steel (Mechanical Engineering and Heavy Industries) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 30: Global: Stainless Steel (Other Applications) Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 31: Global: Stainless Steel (Other Applications) Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 32: North America: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 33: North America: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 34: United States: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 35: United States: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 36: Canada: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 37: Canada: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 38: Asia-Pacific: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 39: Asia-Pacific: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 40: China: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 41: China: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 42: Japan: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 43: Japan: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 44: India: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 45: India: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 46: South Korea: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 47: South Korea: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 48: Australia: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 49: Australia: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 50: Indonesia: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 51: Indonesia: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 52: Others: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 53: Others: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 54: Europe: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 55: Europe: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 56: Germany: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 57: Germany: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 58: France: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 59: France: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 60: United Kingdom: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 61: United Kingdom: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 62: Italy: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 63: Italy: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 64: Spain: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 65: Spain: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 66: Russia: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 67: Russia: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 68: Others: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 69: Others: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 70: Latin America: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 71: Latin America: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 72: Brazil: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 73: Brazil: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 74: Mexico: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 75: Mexico: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 76: Others: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 77: Others: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 78: Middle East and Africa: Stainless Steel Market: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2019 & 2024
Figure 79: Middle East and Africa: Stainless Steel Market: Breakup by Country (in %), 2024
Figure 80: Middle East and Africa: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Sales Value (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Figure 81: Global: Stainless Steel Industry: Drivers, Restraints, and Opportunities
Figure 82: Global: Stainless Steel Industry: Value Chain Analysis
Figure 83: Global: Stainless Steel Industry: Porter's Five Forces Analysis

List of Tables

Table 1: Global: Stainless Steel Market: Key Industry Highlights, 2024 & 2033
Table 2: Global: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Breakup by Product (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Table 3: Global: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Breakup by Grade (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Table 4: Global: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Breakup by Application (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Table 5: Global: Stainless Steel Market Forecast: Breakup by Region (in Million USD), 2025-2033
Table 6: Global: Stainless Steel Market: Competitive Structure
Table 7: Global: Stainless Steel Market: Key Players

02-2729-4219

+886-2-2729-4219