精子數量檢測市場報告：2031 年趨勢、預測與競爭分析

全球精子數量檢測市場前景光明，生育治療中心、醫院/診所和診斷實驗室市場都存在大量機會。預計到 2031 年全球精子數量檢測市場規模將達到 27 億美元，2025 年至 2031 年的複合年成長率為 4.7%。該市場的主要驅動力是家庭精子檢測套組的日益普及和認知度、不孕症患者數量的不斷增加以及晚婚趨勢的日益增強。

• Lucintel 預測顯微鏡將成為預測期內成長最快的技術類別。
• 在最終用途類別中，預計生育中心在預測期內仍將是最大的部分。
• 根據地區，北美將在預測期內繼續成為最大的地區。

精子數量檢測市場的策略性成長機會

技術進步、對男性不孕問題日益成長的認知以及不斷發展的醫療需求為精子數量測試市場創造了多種策略成長機會。利用這些機會不僅可以顯著擴大市場，還能改善不孕症管理解決方案。

• 居家檢測解決方案：居家精子計數選項將成為一個巨大的成長途徑。這使得公司能夠利用日益成長的人口尋找無需去診所就能監測不孕不育的方法這一優勢。
• 與生育治療的整合：將精液量測試納入更廣泛的生育治療計劃還有進一步發展的空間。當與精子分析等其他診斷和治療服務結合時，可以實現不孕症的綜合治療，從而改善患者的治療效果。
• 人工智慧和自動化：人工智慧（AI）技術的使用和精子計數過程的自動化將帶來顯著的益處。診斷能力將會提高，同時測試可能會變得更加簡化，這對醫療保健產業的各個相關人員來說都很重要。
• 經濟實惠的檢測解決方案：方便且經濟的精子數量測試有可能開拓新的市場，特別是在醫療資源有限的地區。此外，透過使設備便攜、易於使用和價格合理，可以滿足各個人群尚未滿足的需求，從而擴大市場覆蓋範圍。
• 教育和宣傳計劃：對男性不孕和精液量的教育和宣傳計劃的投資具有巨大的潛力。提高公眾認知度並減少對男性生殖結果的恥辱感將增加對檢測和相關服務的需求。

在家檢測創新、人工智慧整合和綜合生育治療計劃推動的精液量檢測具有巨大的策略性成長機會。價格合理、便利且具教育意義的宣傳活動是擴大市場佔有率和滿足各種生殖健康需求的關鍵。這些可能性將塑造精子數量測試的未來，同時激發不孕症治療的發展。

精子數量檢測市場促進因素與挑戰

精子數量檢測市場受到多種技術、經濟和監管因素的影響，這些因素推動了精子數量檢測市場的成長，但也帶來了挑戰。因此，了解這些促進因素和挑戰是所有相關人員探索生殖醫學診斷不斷發展的領域的先決條件。

推動精子數量測試市場的因素有：

1. 技術進步：由於技術的進步，尤其是高解析度成像和人工智慧（AI）的使用等領域，精子計數測試變得更加準確。這提高了診斷的準確性並有助於識別不孕症等問題，從而增加了購買該設備的用戶數量，推動了市場擴張。

2. 人們對男性不孕症的認知不斷提高：人們對男性不孕症的認知不斷提高，解釋了尋求更頻繁進行精子數量測試的人數增加的原因。此外，隨著患者和醫療專業人員越來越關注男性生殖健康，對檢查這種情況的先進解決方案的需求日益增加，從而刺激了市場的擴張。

3. 家庭測試解決方案：目前，家庭平台的採用正在推動可在家中私密使用的男性不孕檢測套組的銷售。這些產品為不孕症的臨床監測提供了一種替代方案，而許多人都希望避免這種監測。

4. 與不孕症治療相結合：這種方法允許透過精子計數測試解決一些診斷和治療問題，作為更廣泛的不孕症治療計劃的一部分。這推動了市場對全面考慮不孕不育問題的先進診斷解決方案的需求。

5. 研發投入：增加研發資金，持續促進精子數量檢測技術的創新。這導致了研發支出的增加，使世界各地不同人群的精子數量水平和分析方法得到了快速提高。

精子數量檢測市場面臨的挑戰包括：

1. 先進檢測成本高：成本是影響複雜精子計數技術（如 IVF 試劑套件和 PCR）採用率的關鍵因素。在低度開發國家，缺乏價格合理的設備和化學品會限制獲取訊息，阻礙市場滲透。

2. 監管障礙：產品核准可能受到不同地區針對醫療設備（包括診斷測試產品）的法律規範和要求的限制。遵守不同的標準可能會延遲產品的行銷、註冊和批准。

3. 技術整合問題：將先進的精子計數系統與現有系統整合時也會出現瓶頸。相容性問題加上特殊的培訓要求，可能會使參與此類程序的醫療專業人員難以採用該系統。

推動和阻礙精子數量測試市場的關鍵因素反映了由技術進步、意識增強和監管複雜性所塑造的不斷變化的環境。技術創新和對男性生育能力的關注推動了銷售成長，而成本、法律要求和景氣衰退等問題則阻礙了成長。因此，對於產業參與者來說，重要的是應對這些挑戰，同時利用推動因素在不斷變化的環境中取得成功，並改善生殖保健。

目錄

第1章執行摘要

第 2 章全球精子數量測試市場：市場動態

• 簡介、背景和分類
• 供應鏈
• 產業促進因素與挑戰

第 3 章 2019 年至 2031 年的市場趨勢與預測分析

• 宏觀經濟趨勢（2019-2024）與預測（2025-2031）
• 全球精子數量檢測市場趨勢（2019-2024）和預測（2025-2031）
• 全球精子數量檢測市場（依技術分類）
  • 層析法免疫檢測測定和比色反應
  • 顯微鏡
  • 基於智慧型手機
  • 其他
• 全球精子數量檢測市場依年齡層分類
  • 34歲或以下34歲
  • 35-40歲
  • 年齡 41 歲或以上
• 全球精子數量檢測市場（依最終用途分類）
  • 不孕不孕治療中心
  • 醫院和診所
  • 診斷實驗室
  • 其他

第 4 章 2019 年至 2031 年各地區的市場趨勢與預測分析

• 全球精子數量檢測市場（按地區分類）
• 北美精子數量檢測市場
• 歐洲精子數量檢測市場
• 亞太地區精子數量檢測市場
• 世界其他地區的精子數量檢測市場

第5章 競爭分析

• 產品系列分析
• 營運整合
• 波特五力分析

第6章 成長機會與策略分析

• 成長機會分析
  • 全球精子數量檢測市場成長機會（依技術分類）
  • 全球精子數量檢測市場成長機會（依年齡層分類）
  • 全球精子數量檢測市場的成長機會（以最終用途分類）
  • 全球精子數量檢測市場成長機會（按地區分類）
• 全球精子數量檢測市場的新趨勢
• 戰略分析
  • 新產品開發
  • 全球精子數量檢測市場產能擴大
  • 全球精子數量檢測市場的合併、收購和合資企業
  • 認證和許可

第7章主要企業簡介

• AB ANALITICA
• Artron Laboratories
• Bioline Technologies
• CooperSurgical
• Diacron International
• DNA Diagnostics Center
• ExSeed Health
• Hamilton Thorne
• Medical Electronic Systems
• Microptic

The future of the global sperm count test market looks promising with opportunities in the fertility center, hospital & clinic, and diagnostic laboratory markets. The global sperm count test market is expected to reach an estimated $2.7 billion by 2031 with a CAGR of 4.7% from 2025 to 2031. The major drivers for this market are the rising accessibility and awareness of home-based sperm test kits, growing rates of infertility cases, and the expanding trend of late parenthood.

• Lucintel forecasts that, within the technique category, microscopy is expected to witness the highest growth over the forecast period.
• Within the end-use category, fertility center will remain the largest segment over the forecast period.
• In terms of regions, North America will remain the largest region over the forecast period.

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Emerging Trends in the Sperm Count Test Market

Current trends in relation to sperm count test examination show increased accuracy coupled with enhanced accessibility in the overall management systems within the wide sphere of the healthcare sector. The industry is experiencing transformation due to these trends, which introduce new technologies or improve existing ones.

• Digital and Home Testing Solutions: A rising demand for digital-based means aids users who wish to conduct such tests within their homes, whereby they receive results through smartphone apps. These approaches make it easy to keep track of one's fertility even without visiting a clinic since privacy is maintained throughout this process.
• AI and Machine Learning Integration: Developing applications for artificial intelligence and machine learning in sperm count tests will make them more accurate and diagnostically capable. The AI software can assess sperm samples with greater precision, offering detailed information about sperm health as well as potential causes of infertility.
• Portable and User-Friendly Devices: Innovations in portable devices used for testing the number of sperm have made it easier for people to do so in different places. These user-friendly machines are designed to be simple, thereby reducing the need for complex laboratory tools and processes.
• Comprehensive Fertility Testing: The concept behind this approach is to integrate sperm count tests with broader fertility diagnostics. Therefore, comprehensive assessments combine sperm count analysis with other reproductive health evaluations to give a more holistic picture of fertility, thus guiding treatment choices.
• Increased Focus on Male Fertility: A deeper understanding of men's fertility is leading to improved accessibility of advanced semen analyses. Moreover, there is a drive toward improving male reproductive health, which has led to innovations targeting various areas related to fertility as well as diagnostic enhancements.

These emerging trends are transforming the landscape of sperm counting assays by increasing accessibility, accuracy, and their integration into comprehensive fertility diagnostics. Digitalization of the solutions provided, integration of AI algorithms, and user-friendly gadgets have brought convenience close to home when it comes to assessing sperm counts while emphasizing male factors leading to a general transformation in this area. In the future, these movements will be central to promoting reproductive health through better management of fertility.

Recent Developments in the Sperm Count Test Market

Recent trends in accounting for sperm count test include technological advancements that have increased accessibility and precision in diagnosis. It is an attempt to address men's inability to reproduce while providing better means for monitoring sexual productivity.

• Technological Innovations: Accordingly, new technologies are increasing the accuracy of sperm count tests with improved imaging and automation for precise, reliable results. Such inventions include high-resolution microscopy and automated semen analysis systems, whose main utility is diagnostic improvement.
• Digital Testing Solutions: Individuals can now perform tests at home using phone applications that come along with digital sperm count tests. This way of assessing fertility offers convenience as well as privacy, allowing users to check their reproductive status without necessarily having clinical visits.
• Affordable and Accessible Options: There is an ongoing effort to develop cost-effective and accessible sperm count tests, especially in underserved regions. Additionally, portable, user-friendly equipment is being designed to facilitate availability, thus making it easier for individuals to undertake these examinations.
• AI and Machine Learning: AI has been integrated into sperm count testing, improving accuracy rates as well as diagnostics. This AI-driven testing provides significant insights into the health of sperm so that fertility issues can be identified and managed effectively.
• Holistic Fertility Diagnostics: There is a trend toward combining comprehensive fertility diagnostics with serum parameters (e.g., sperm counts). This approach combines semen analysis and other diagnostic tools to give a more holistic view of fertility.

The accuracy, accessibility, and integration of diagnostic tools have greatly improved due to recent developments in sperm count test. Digital solutions, technological innovations, and AI-driven analysis are transforming the field, leading to more accurate and convenient ways of sperm count testing. Fertility management is adopting a new approach that is affordable and holistic by addressing various reproductive health needs.

Strategic Growth Opportunities for Sperm Count Test Market

Advancements in technology, increasing awareness of male fertility issues, and developing healthcare needs create several strategic growth opportunities for the sperm count test market. Taking advantage of these opportunities can lead to significant market expansion as well as improved fertility management solutions.

• Home Testing Solutions: Home-based options for counting sperm would be a great avenue for growth. This would enable companies to take advantage of an increasingly growing population seeking ways to monitor infertility without clinical visits.
• Integration with Fertility Treatments: Incorporating broader fertility treatment programs into semen volume tests offers room for further growth. When combined with other diagnostic or therapeutic services, such as sperm analysis, a comprehensive approach to managing fertility would be achieved, leading to better patient outcomes.
• AI and Automation: Utilizing artificial intelligence (AI) techniques as well as automating the processes involved in counting sperm would yield tremendous benefits. Diagnostic capacities may improve while making testing simpler, which is important for various stakeholders within the healthcare industry.
• Affordable Testing Solutions: Economic sperm count tests that are easily accessible could tap into new markets, especially in areas with limited healthcare resources. Additionally, market reach will increase by making devices portable, user-friendly, and affordably priced, thereby fulfilling unmet requirements across demographics.
• Educational and Awareness Programs: Investing in educational and awareness programs about male infertility and semen volume count poses significant potential. By increasing public knowledge and reducing the stigma around male reproductive health, testing, and related services will be in high demand.

Strategic growth opportunities in sperm count testing through home-based testing innovations, AI integration, and comprehensive fertility programs are crucial. Affordable, accessible, and educational campaigns are key to expanding market presence and addressing various reproductive health demands. These possibilities shape the future of sperm volume testing while triggering developments in fertility management.

Sperm Count Test Market Driver and Challenges

The sperm count test market is affected by several technological, economic, and regulatory factors that drive growth but also pose challenges. Therefore, understanding these drivers and challenges is a prerequisite for all stakeholders navigating the evolving landscape of reproductive health diagnostics.

Factors driving the sperm count test market include:

1. Technological Advancements: Sperm counting tests have become more accurate due to improvements in technology, especially in areas like imaging where there is high resolution or the use of artificial intelligence (AI). This leads to better diagnoses, aiding in identifying issues such as sterility, resulting in an increased number of users purchasing them, and driving market expansion.

2. Growing Awareness of Male Fertility: The increase in awareness surrounding male infertility explains why individuals are demanding a higher frequency of sperm count checks. Additionally, the need for advanced solutions for checking this condition has risen due to a greater focus on male reproductive health by both patients and medical professionals, thus fueling market expansion.

3. Home Testing Solutions: The use of home-based platforms is currently boosting sales of male fertility test kits that can be used in the privacy of homes. These products provide an alternative to clinical monitoring of fertility, which many individuals wish to avoid.

4. Integration with Fertility Treatments: This approach has made it possible for several issues regarding diagnosis and therapy to be addressed by sperm count tests as part of extensive infertility treatment programs. This has driven market demand for sophisticated diagnostic solutions that consider fertility holistically.

5. Investment in Research and Development: Increased funding for research and development continues to contribute to innovations in the sphere of sperm count testing techniques. This results in more expenditure on R&D, leading to rapid progress and better methods of analyzing sperm count levels across various populations globally.

Challenges in the sperm count test market include:

1. High Costs of Advanced Testing: Cost is a significant factor affecting the adoption rates for complex forms of sperm counting technologies, such as IVF procedure kits or PCRs. Underdeveloped countries may have limited access due to unaffordable equipment and chemicals, thus impeding market penetration.

2. Regulatory Hurdles: Product approval may be affected by different regional regulatory frameworks and requirements applicable to medical devices, including diagnostic test products. Compliance with diverse standards may delay product launch, registration, or regulatory clearance, depending on the regions in which they are intended to operate.

3. Technological Integration Issues: There may also be bottlenecks in integrating advanced systems for counting sperm with existing ones. Compatibility challenges, combined with special training requirements, can make it difficult for medical professionals involved in such procedures to adopt them.

The main factors driving and inhibiting the sperm count testing market reflect an evolving environment shaped by technological advancements, growing awareness, and regulatory intricacies. Innovations and focus on male fertility rates are leading to increased sales, while issues around cost, legal requirements, and economic downturns hinder growth. Consequently, addressing these challenges while capitalizing on enablers is important for industry players to thrive in this changing landscape toward improved reproductive health.

List of Sperm Count Test Companies

Companies in the market compete on the basis of product quality offered. Major players in this market focus on expanding their manufacturing facilities, R&D investments, infrastructural development, and leverage integration opportunities across the value chain. With these strategies sperm count test companies cater increasing demand, ensure competitive effectiveness, develop innovative products & technologies, reduce production costs, and expand their customer base. Some of the sperm count test companies profiled in this report include-

• AB ANALITICA
• Artron Laboratories
• Bioline Technologies
• CooperSurgical
• Diacron International
• DNA Diagnostics Center
• ExSeed Health
• Hamilton Thorne
• Medical Electronic Systems
• Microptic

Sperm Count Test by Segment

The study includes a forecast for the global sperm count test market by technique, age group, end use, and region.

Sperm Count Test Market by Technique [Analysis by Value from 2019 to 2031]:

• Chromatographic Immunoassay & Colorimetric Reaction
• Microscopy
• Smartphone-Based
• Others

Sperm Count Test Market by Age Group [Analysis by Value from 2019 to 2031]:

• 34 and Below 34 Years
• 35-40 Years
• 41 Years and Above

Sperm Count Test Market by End Use [Analysis by Value from 2019 to 2031]:

• Fertility Centers
• Hospitals & Clinics
• Diagnostic Laboratories
• Others

Sperm Count Test Market by Region [Analysis by Value from 2019 to 2031]:

• North America
• Europe
• Asia Pacific
• The Rest of the World

Country Wise Outlook for the Sperm Count Test Market

The global landscape of sperm count tests has undergone a paradigm shift due to technological advancements, increasing awareness of male fertility issues, and dynamic health needs. The latest developments are diverse and characterized by various approaches in different countries, addressing aspects of sperm count estimation such as accuracy, accessibility, and compatibility with wider fertility therapy efforts. These changes signify an emerging need to improve diagnostic precision toward individualization of diagnosis and provision.

• United States: In the USA, recent advances in sperm count testing incorporate digital technology and improve home-testing options. Modern devices for analyzing sperm now come with findings generated through smartphone applications using real-time methods. These include increased accuracy levels through AI analysis as well as better user interfaces that enhance ease of use. The goal is to make it more convenient for individuals who wish to privately monitor their fertility status.
• China: Significant progress in this field has been achieved through sophisticated laboratory technologies and research funding. This includes high-resolution imaging techniques and automated semen analysis systems aimed at improving the fidelity of test results. Moreover, there is a rising trend toward integrating sperm count testing into broader infertility treatment programs, indicating a more holistic approach to addressing infertility.
• Germany: What distinguishes Germany's progress on this subject is its focus on precision and standardization. German researchers lead in developing advanced diagnostic tools that offer high degrees of precision and reproducibility. Recent trends include the use of innovative biomarker assays alongside automated systems for analyzing sperm. Germany also aims to include a comprehensive approach to male fertility diagnostics in its services.
• India: Recent developments in India regarding sperm count testing revolve around affordability and accessibility improvements. Efforts are being made to develop cost-effective and user-friendly sperm count tests that can be utilized in both urban and rural areas. Additionally, novel developments such as portable testing devices and community-based health programs enhance awareness and access to sperm analysis services, expanding the scope of testing to address the growing concerns about male fertility.
• Japan: Technological advancements in Japan concerning sperm count testing aim to improve diagnostic precision using advanced methods. Japanese scientists are developing high-tech gadgets for evaluating semen quality through artificial intelligence and machine learning. A growing focus is also on incorporating sperm count tests into broader fertility treatment frameworks, streamlining diagnosis through new diagnostic tools and simplified testing methods.

Features of the Global Sperm Count Test Market

Market Size Estimates: Sperm count test market size estimation in terms of value ($B).

Trend and Forecast Analysis: Market trends (2019 to 2024) and forecast (2025 to 2031) by various segments and regions.

Segmentation Analysis: Sperm count test market size by technique, age group, end use, and region in terms of value ($B).

Regional Analysis: Sperm count test market breakdown by North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, and Rest of the World.

Growth Opportunities: Analysis of growth opportunities in different techniques, age groups, end uses, and regions for the sperm count test market.

Strategic Analysis: This includes M&A, new product development, and competitive landscape of the sperm count test market.

Analysis of competitive intensity of the industry based on Porter's Five Forces model.

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This report answers following 11 key questions:

• Q.1. What are some of the most promising, high-growth opportunities for the sperm count test market by technique (chromatographic immunoassay & colorimetric reaction, microscopy, smartphone-based, and others), age group (34 and below 34 years, 35-40 years, and 41 years and above), end use (fertility centers, hospitals & clinics, diagnostic laboratories, and others), and region (North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, and the Rest of the World)?
• Q.2. Which segments will grow at a faster pace and why?
• Q.3. Which region will grow at a faster pace and why?
• Q.4. What are the key factors affecting market dynamics? What are the key challenges and business risks in this market?
• Q.5. What are the business risks and competitive threats in this market?
• Q.6. What are the emerging trends in this market and the reasons behind them?
• Q.7. What are some of the changing demands of customers in the market?
• Q.8. What are the new developments in the market? Which companies are leading these developments?
• Q.9. Who are the major players in this market? What strategic initiatives are key players pursuing for business growth?
• Q.10. What are some of the competing products in this market and how big of a threat do they pose for loss of market share by material or product substitution?
• Q.11. What M&A activity has occurred in the last 5 years and what has its impact been on the industry?

Table of Contents

1. Executive Summary

2. Global Sperm Count Test Market : Market Dynamics

• 2.1: Introduction, Background, and Classifications
• 2.2: Supply Chain
• 2.3: Industry Drivers and Challenges

3. Market Trends and Forecast Analysis from 2019 to 2031

• 3.1. Macroeconomic Trends (2019-2024) and Forecast (2025-2031)
• 3.2. Global Sperm Count Test Market Trends (2019-2024) and Forecast (2025-2031)
• 3.3: Global Sperm Count Test Market by Technique
  • 3.3.1: Chromatographic Immunoassay & Colorimetric Reaction
  • 3.3.2: Microscopy
  • 3.3.3: Smartphone-Based
  • 3.3.4: Others
• 3.4: Global Sperm Count Test Market by Age Group
  • 3.4.1: 34 and Below 34 Years
  • 3.4.2: 35-40 Years
  • 3.4.3: 41 Years and Above
• 3.5: Global Sperm Count Test Market by End Use
  • 3.5.1: Fertility Centers
  • 3.5.2: Hospitals & Clinics
  • 3.5.3: Diagnostic Laboratories
  • 3.5.4: Others

4. Market Trends and Forecast Analysis by Region from 2019 to 2031

• 4.1: Global Sperm Count Test Market by Region
• 4.2: North American Sperm Count Test Market
  • 4.2.1: North American Sperm Count Test Market by Technique: Chromatographic Immunoassay & Colorimetric Reaction, Microscopy, Smartphone-Based, and Others
  • 4.2.2: North American Sperm Count Test Market by End Use: Fertility Centers, Hospitals & Clinics, Diagnostic Laboratories, and Others
• 4.3: European Sperm Count Test Market
  • 4.3.1: European Sperm Count Test Market by Technique: Chromatographic Immunoassay & Colorimetric Reaction, Microscopy, Smartphone-Based, and Others
  • 4.3.2: European Sperm Count Test Market by End Use: Fertility Centers, Hospitals & Clinics, Diagnostic Laboratories, and Others
• 4.4: APAC Sperm Count Test Market
  • 4.4.1: APAC Sperm Count Test Market by Technique: Chromatographic Immunoassay & Colorimetric Reaction, Microscopy, Smartphone-Based, and Others
  • 4.4.2: APAC Sperm Count Test Market by End Use: Fertility Centers, Hospitals & Clinics, Diagnostic Laboratories, and Others
• 4.5: ROW Sperm Count Test Market
  • 4.5.1: ROW Sperm Count Test Market by Technique: Chromatographic Immunoassay & Colorimetric Reaction, Microscopy, Smartphone-Based, and Others
  • 4.5.2: ROW Sperm Count Test Market by End Use: Fertility Centers, Hospitals & Clinics, Diagnostic Laboratories, and Others

5. Competitor Analysis

• 5.1: Product Portfolio Analysis
• 5.2: Operational Integration
• 5.3: Porter's Five Forces Analysis

6. Growth Opportunities and Strategic Analysis

• 6.1: Growth Opportunity Analysis
  • 6.1.1: Growth Opportunities for the Global Sperm Count Test Market by Technique
  • 6.1.2: Growth Opportunities for the Global Sperm Count Test Market by Age Group
  • 6.1.3: Growth Opportunities for the Global Sperm Count Test Market by End Use
  • 6.1.4: Growth Opportunities for the Global Sperm Count Test Market by Region
• 6.2: Emerging Trends in the Global Sperm Count Test Market
• 6.3: Strategic Analysis
  • 6.3.1: New Product Development
  • 6.3.2: Capacity Expansion of the Global Sperm Count Test Market
  • 6.3.3: Mergers, Acquisitions, and Joint Ventures in the Global Sperm Count Test Market
  • 6.3.4: Certification and Licensing

7. Company Profiles of Leading Players

• 7.1: AB ANALITICA
• 7.2: Artron Laboratories
• 7.3: Bioline Technologies
• 7.4: CooperSurgical
• 7.5: Diacron International
• 7.6: DNA Diagnostics Center
• 7.7: ExSeed Health
• 7.8: Hamilton Thorne
• 7.9: Medical Electronic Systems
• 7.10: Microptic