碳回收·利用·儲存(CCUS)的全球市場(2025年～2045年)

The Global Market for Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) 2025-2045

出版日期: 2024年10月23日 | 出版商:

Future Markets, Inc. | 英文 652 Pages, 222 Tables, 158 Figures | 訂單完成後即時交付

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簡介目錄圖表

隨著世界加大力度實現淨零排放，碳捕獲、利用和封存 (CCUS) 技術正成為關鍵難以減排產業減排的關鍵解決方案。 CCUS 是一種捕獲排放的二氧化碳並使用或儲存以永久封存二氧化碳的技術。 CCUS 技術捕獲大型能源（例如由化石燃料或生物質供電的發電廠和工業設施）排放的二氧化碳。二氧化碳也可以直接從大氣中捕獲。當不在現場使用時，捕獲的二氧化碳被壓縮並通過管道、船舶、鐵路或卡車運輸用於多種用途。或者，將二氧化碳注入深層地質層（包括枯竭的油氣藏和鹽層）以永久儲存二氧化碳。

人們對二氧化碳轉化技術日益增長的興趣也反映在該領域私人公司的公共和私人資金的增加。過去十年，全球二氧化碳新創企業的私人融資已超過 90 億美元，主要以創投和成長股權的形式。大企業也加大研發投入，政府也加大資金投入。

2024年，碳捕集投資將成為能源公司和創投公司投資的重點。第一季最大的交易是美國二氧化碳去除技術開發商 CarbonCapture 獲得的 9,000 萬美元 A 輪融資，由 Aramco Ventures、亞馬遜氣候承諾基金和西門子金融服務公司支持。其他碳捕集交易包括由殼牌創投公司支持的直接空氣捕集技術開發商 Avnos 進行的 3,600 萬美元 A 輪融資。零號任務技術公司 (Mission Zero Technologies) 獲得了由西門子支援的 2,800 萬美元 A 輪融資。美國海洋碳去除技術開發商Captura也完成了2,200萬美元的A輪融資，由Aramco Ventures、Equinor Ventures以及Eni、Hitachi和EDP等公司參與。

本報告提供全球碳回收·利用·儲存(CCUS)市場相關調查分析，提供重要技術與開發的現狀，與主要市場區隔的市場規模收益的預測，310公司以上詳細的企業簡介，未來預測等資訊。

As the world intensifies its efforts to achieve net-zero emissions, Carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies are emerging as critical solutions for reducing emissions across essential hard-to-abate sectors sectors. CCUS refers to technologies that capture CO2 emissions and use or store them, leading to permanent sequestration. CCUS technologies capture carbon dioxide emissions from large power sources, including power generation or industrial facilities that use either fossil fuels or biomass for fuel. CO2 can also be captured directly from the atmosphere. If not utilized onsite, captured CO2 is compressed and transported by pipeline, ship, rail or truck to be used in a range of applications, or injected into deep geological formations (including depleted oil and gas reservoirs or saline formations) which trap the CO2 for permanent storage.

The increasing interest in CO2 conversion technologies is reflected in the growing amount of private and public funding that has been channelled to companies in this field. Over the last decade, global private funding for CO2 use start-ups is over $9 billion, primarily in the form of venture capital and growth equity. Large corporations are also increasing their R&D investments and governments are allocating increasing funding.

In 2024, carbon capture investments have been a key focus for energy-related corporate and VC investment. The largest deal in Q1 was a $90m series A funding round for CarbonCapture, a US-based CO2 removal technology developer, backed by Aramco Ventures, Amazon's Climate Pledge Fund and Siemens Financial Services. Other carbon capture-related deals included the $36m series A round by direct air capture tech developer Avnos, backed by Shell Ventures. Mission Zero Technologies received $28m in a series A round, backed by Siemens. US-based ocean's carbon removal tech developer Captura also closed a $22m series A round that featured Aramco Ventures, Equinor Ventures as well as other corporates like Eni, Hitachi and EDP.

"The Global Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) Market 2025-2045" offers an in-depth analysis offers valuable insights for stakeholders in the energy, industrial, and environmental sectors, as well as policymakers, investors, and researchers seeking to understand the transformative potential of CCUS in the global transition to a low-carbon economy.

Report contents include:

Analysis of market trends for integrated CCUS solutions, the rise of direct air capture technologies, and the growing interest in CO2 utilization for value-added products.
In-depth examination of key CCUS technologies, their current state of development, and future innovations:
- Carbon Capture:
  - Post-combustion capture
  - Pre-combustion capture
  - Oxy-fuel combustion
  - Direct air capture (DAC)
  - Emerging capture technologies (e.g., membrane-based, cryogenic)
- Carbon Utilization:
  - CO2-derived fuels and chemicals
  - Building materials and concrete curing
  - Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
  - Biological utilization (e.g., algae cultivation)
  - Mineralization processes
- Carbon Storage:
  - Geological sequestration in saline aquifers
  - Depleted oil and gas reservoirs
  - Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) with storage
  - Mineral carbonation
  - Ocean storage (potential future applications)
Technology readiness levels (TRLs) of various CCUS approaches, highlighting areas of rapid advancement and identifying potential game-changers in the industry.
Global CCUS capacity additions by technology and region
CO2 capture volumes by source (power generation, industry, direct air capture)
- Utilization volumes by application (fuels, chemicals, materials, EOR)
Storage volumes by type (geological, mineralization, other)
Market size and revenue projections for key CCUS segments
- Investment trends and capital expenditure forecasts
Comprehensive overview of the CCUS industry value chain, from technology providers and equipment manufacturers to project developers and end-users.
- Detailed profiles of over 310 companies across the CCUS value chain. Companies profiled include 3R-BioPhosphate, 44.01, 8Rivers, Adaptavate, Aeroborn B.V., Aether Diamonds, Again, Air Company, Air Liquide S.A., Air Products and Chemicals Inc., Air Protein, Air Quality Solutions Worldwide DAC, Aircela Inc, Airco Process Technology, Airex Energy, AirHive, Airovation Technologies, Algal Bio Co. Ltd., Algenol, Algiecel ApS, Andes Ag Inc., Aqualung Carbon Capture, Arborea, Arca, Arkeon Biotechnologies, Asahi Kasei, AspiraDAC Pty Ltd., Aspiring Materials, Atoco, Avantium N.V., Avnos Inc., Aymium, Axens SA, Azolla, BASF Group, Barton Blakeley Technologies Ltd., BC Biocarbon, Blue Planet Systems Corporation, BluSky Inc., BP PLC, Breathe Applied Sciences, Bright Renewables, Brilliant Planet, bse Methanol GmbH, C-Capture, C2CNT LLC, C4X Technologies Inc., Cambridge Carbon Capture Ltd., Capchar Ltd., Captura Corporation, Capture6, Carba, CarbiCrete, Carbfix, Carboclave, Carbo Culture, Carbofex Oy, Carbominer, Carbonade, Carbonaide Oy, Carbonaught Pty Ltd., CarbonBuilt, Carbon CANTONNE, Carbon Capture Inc. (CarbonCapture), Carbon Capture Machine (UK), Carbon Centric AS, Carbon Clean Solutions Limited, Carbon Collect Limited, Carbon Engineering Ltd., Carbon Geocapture Corp, Carbon Infinity Limited, Carbon Limit, Carbon Neutral Fuels, Carbon Recycling International, Carbon Re, Carbon Reform Inc., Carbon Ridge Inc., Carbon Sink LLC, CarbonStar Systems, Carbon Upcycling Technologies, CarbonCure Technologies Inc., Carbonfree Chemicals, CarbonFree, CarbonMeta Research Ltd, Carbonova, CarbonOrO Products B.V., CarbonQuest, Carbon-Zero US LLC, CarbonScape Ltd., Carbon8 Systems, Carbon Blade, Carbon Blue, Carbyon BV, Cella Mineral Storage, Cemvita Factory Inc., CERT Systems Inc., CFOAM Limited, Charm Industrial, Chevron Corporation, Chiyoda Corporation, China Energy Investment Corporation (CHN Energy), Climeworks, CNF Biofuel AS, CO2 Capsol, CO2Rail Company, CO2CirculAir B.V., Compact Carbon Capture AS (Baker Hughes), Concrete4Change, Coval Energy B.V., Covestro AG, C-Quester Inc., Cquestr8 Limited, CyanoCapture, D-CRBN, Decarbontek LLC, Deep Branch Biotechnology, Deep Sky, Denbury Inc., Dimensional Energy, Dioxide Materials, Dioxycle, Earth RepAIR, Ebb Carbon and many more.
- Analysis of key players' strategies, market positioning, and competitive advantages
- Assessment of partnerships, mergers, and acquisitions shaping the industry
- Evaluation of emerging start-ups and innovative technology providers
Regional Analysis including current and planned CCUS projects, regulatory frameworks, investment climates, and growth opportunities.
Policy and Regulatory Landscape
- Analysis of global, regional, and national climate policies impacting CCUS
- Overview of carbon pricing mechanisms and their effect on CCUS economics
- Examination of incentives, tax credits, and support schemes for CCUS projects
- Assessment of regulatory frameworks for CO2 transport and storage
- Projections of future policy developments and their market implications
Detailed cost breakdowns for capture, transport, utilization, and storage
Analysis of cost reduction trends and projections
Comparison of CCUS costs across different applications and technologies
Assessment of revenue streams and business models for CCUS projects
Evaluation of the role of carbon markets in CCUS economics
Challenges and Opportunities including:
- High capital and operational costs
- Technological barriers and scale-up issues
- Public perception and social acceptance
- Regulatory uncertainty and policy risks
- Infrastructure development needs
Emerging opportunities, such as:
- Integration with hydrogen production for blue hydrogen
- Negative emissions technologies (NETs) like BECCS and DACCS
- Development of CCUS hubs and clusters
- Novel CO2 utilization pathways in high-value products
- Potential for CCUS in hard-to-abate sectors
Future Outlook and Scenarios including
- Pace of technological innovation
- Strength of climate policies and carbon pricing
- Public acceptance and support for CCUS
- Integration with other clean energy technologies
- Global economic trends and energy market dynamics

This comprehensive market report is an essential resource for:

Energy and industrial companies exploring CCUS opportunities
Technology providers and equipment manufacturers in the CCUS space
Project developers and investors in clean energy and climate solutions
Policymakers and regulators shaping climate and energy policies
Research institutions and academics studying carbon management strategies
Environmental organizations and think tanks focused on climate change mitigation
Financial institutions and analysts assessing the CCUS market potential

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1.1. Main sources of carbon dioxide emissions
1.2. CO2 as a commodity
1.3. Meeting climate targets
1.4. Market drivers and trends
1.5. The current market and future outlook
1.6. CCUS Industry developments 2020-2024
1.7. CCUS investments
- 1.7.1. Venture Capital Funding
  - 1.7.1.1. 2010-2023
  - 1.7.1.2. CCUS VC deals 2022-2024
1.8. Government CCUS initiatives
- 1.8.1. North America
- 1.8.2. Europe
- 1.8.3. Asia
  - 1.8.3.1. Japan
  - 1.8.3.2. Singapore
  - 1.8.3.3. China
1.9. Market map
1.10. Commercial CCUS facilities and projects
- 1.10.1. Facilities
  - 1.10.1.1. Operational
  - 1.10.1.2. Under development/construction
1.11. CCUS Value Chain
1.12. Key market barriers for CCUS
1.13. Carbon pricing
- 1.13.1. Compliance Carbon Pricing Mechanisms
- 1.13.2. Alternative to Carbon Pricing: 45Q Tax Credits
- 1.13.3. Business models
- 1.13.4. The European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS)
- 1.13.5. Carbon Pricing in the US
- 1.13.6. Carbon Pricing in China
- 1.13.7. Voluntary Carbon Markets
- 1.13.8. Challenges with Carbon Pricing
1.14. Global market forecasts
- 1.14.1. CCUS capture capacity forecast by end point
- 1.14.2. Capture capacity by region to 2045, Mtpa
- 1.14.3. Revenues
- 1.14.4. CCUS capacity forecast by capture type

2. INTRODUCTION

2.1. What is CCUS?
- 2.1.1. Carbon Capture
  - 2.1.1.1. Source Characterization
  - 2.1.1.2. Purification
  - 2.1.1.3. CO2 capture technologies
- 2.1.2. Carbon Utilization
  - 2.1.2.1. CO2 utilization pathways
- 2.1.3. Carbon storage
  - 2.1.3.1. Passive storage
  - 2.1.3.2. Enhanced oil recovery
2.2. Transporting CO2
- 2.2.1. Methods of CO2 transport
  - 2.2.1.1. Pipeline
  - 2.2.1.2. Ship
  - 2.2.1.3. Road
  - 2.2.1.4. Rail
- 2.2.2. Safety
2.3. Costs
- 2.3.1. Cost of CO2 transport
2.4. Carbon credits

3. CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE

3.1. CO2 capture technologies
3.2. >90% capture rate
3.3. 99% capture rate
3.4. CO2 capture from point sources
- 3.4.1. Energy Availability and Costs
- 3.4.2. Power plants with CCUS
- 3.4.3. Transportation
- 3.4.4. Global point source CO2 capture capacities
- 3.4.5. By source
- 3.4.6. Blue hydrogen
  - 3.4.6.1. Steam-methane reforming (SMR)
  - 3.4.6.2. Autothermal reforming (ATR)
  - 3.4.6.3. Partial oxidation (POX)
  - 3.4.6.4. Sorption Enhanced Steam Methane Reforming (SE-SMR)
  - 3.4.6.5. Pre-Combustion vs. Post-Combustion carbon capture
  - 3.4.6.6. Blue hydrogen projects
  - 3.4.6.7. Costs
  - 3.4.6.8. Market players
- 3.4.7. Carbon capture in cement
  - 3.4.7.1. CCUS Projects
  - 3.4.7.2. Carbon capture technologies
  - 3.4.7.3. Costs
  - 3.4.7.4. Challenges
- 3.4.8. Maritime carbon capture
3.5. Main carbon capture processes
- 3.5.1. Materials
- 3.5.2. Post-combustion
  - 3.5.2.1. Chemicals/Solvents
  - 3.5.2.2. Amine-based post-combustion CO2 absorption
  - 3.5.2.3. Physical absorption solvents
- 3.5.3. Oxy-fuel combustion
  - 3.5.3.1. Oxyfuel CCUS cement projects
  - 3.5.3.2. Chemical Looping-Based Capture
- 3.5.4. Liquid or supercritical CO2: Allam-Fetvedt Cycle
- 3.5.5. Pre-combustion
3.6. Carbon separation technologies
- 3.6.1. Absorption capture
- 3.6.2. Adsorption capture
  - 3.6.2.1. Solid sorbent-based CO2 separation
  - 3.6.2.2. Metal organic framework (MOF) adsorbents
  - 3.6.2.3. Zeolite-based adsorbents
  - 3.6.2.4. Solid amine-based adsorbents
  - 3.6.2.5. Carbon-based adsorbents
  - 3.6.2.6. Polymer-based adsorbents
  - 3.6.2.7. Solid sorbents in pre-combustion
  - 3.6.2.8. Sorption Enhanced Water Gas Shift (SEWGS)
  - 3.6.2.9. Solid sorbents in post-combustion
- 3.6.3. Membranes
  - 3.6.3.1. Membrane-based CO2 separation
  - 3.6.3.2. Post-combustion CO2 capture
    - 3.6.3.2.1. Facilitated transport membranes
  - 3.6.3.3. Pre-combustion capture
- 3.6.4. Liquid or supercritical CO2 (Cryogenic) capture
  - 3.6.4.1. Cryogenic CO2 capture
- 3.6.5. Calcium Looping
  - 3.6.5.1. Calix Advanced Calciner
- 3.6.6. Other technologies
  - 3.6.6.1. LEILAC process
  - 3.6.6.2. CO2 capture with Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs)
  - 3.6.6.3. CO2 capture with Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs)
  - 3.6.6.4. Microalgae Carbon Capture
- 3.6.7. Comparison of key separation technologies
- 3.6.8. Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separation technologies
3.7. Opportunities and barriers
3.8. Costs of CO2 capture
3.9. CO2 capture capacity
3.10. Direct air capture (DAC)
- 3.10.1. Technology description
  - 3.10.1.1. Sorbent-based CO2 Capture
  - 3.10.1.2. Solvent-based CO2 Capture
  - 3.10.1.3. DAC Solid Sorbent Swing Adsorption Processes
  - 3.10.1.4. Electro-Swing Adsorption (ESA) of CO2 for DAC
  - 3.10.1.5. Solid and liquid DAC
- 3.10.2. Advantages of DAC
- 3.10.3. Deployment
- 3.10.4. Point source carbon capture versus Direct Air Capture
- 3.10.5. Technologies
  - 3.10.5.1. Solid sorbents
  - 3.10.5.2. Liquid sorbents
  - 3.10.5.3. Liquid solvents
  - 3.10.5.4. Airflow equipment integration
  - 3.10.5.5. Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC)
  - 3.10.5.6. Direct conversion
  - 3.10.5.7. Co-product generation
  - 3.10.5.8. Low Temperature DAC
  - 3.10.5.9. Regeneration methods
- 3.10.6. Electricity and Heat Sources
- 3.10.7. Commercialization and plants
- 3.10.8. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in DAC
- 3.10.9. DAC plants and projects-current and planned
- 3.10.10. Capacity forecasts
- 3.10.11. Costs
- 3.10.12. Market challenges for DAC
- 3.10.13. Market prospects for direct air capture
- 3.10.14. Players and production
- 3.10.15. Co2 utilization pathways
- 3.10.16. Markets for Direct Air Capture and Storage (DACCS)
  - 3.10.16.1. Fuels
    - 3.10.16.1.1. Overview
    - 3.10.16.1.2. Production routes
    - 3.10.16.1.3. Methanol
    - 3.10.16.1.4. Algae based biofuels
    - 3.10.16.1.5. CO2-fuels from solar
    - 3.10.16.1.6. Companies
    - 3.10.16.1.7. Challenges
  - 3.10.16.2. Chemicals, plastics and polymers
    - 3.10.16.2.1. Overview
    - 3.10.16.2.2. Scalability
    - 3.10.16.2.3. Plastics and polymers
      - 3.10.16.2.3.1. CO2 utilization products
    - 3.10.16.2.4. Urea production
    - 3.10.16.2.5. Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing
    - 3.10.16.2.6. Carbon nanotubes
    - 3.10.16.2.7. Companies
  - 3.10.16.3. Construction materials
    - 3.10.16.3.1. Overview
    - 3.10.16.3.2. CCUS technologies
    - 3.10.16.3.3. Carbonated aggregates
    - 3.10.16.3.4. Additives during mixing
    - 3.10.16.3.5. Concrete curing
    - 3.10.16.3.6. Costs
    - 3.10.16.3.7. Companies
    - 3.10.16.3.8. Challenges
  - 3.10.16.4. CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting
    - 3.10.16.4.1. Overview
    - 3.10.16.4.2. Applications
      - 3.10.16.4.2.1. Greenhouses
      - 3.10.16.4.2.2. Algae cultivation
      - 3.10.16.4.2.3. Microbial conversion
    - 3.10.16.4.3. Companies
  - 3.10.16.5. Food and feed production
  - 3.10.16.6. CO2 Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery
    - 3.10.16.6.1. Overview
      - 3.10.16.6.1.1. Process
      - 3.10.16.6.1.2. CO2 sources
    - 3.10.16.6.2. CO2-EOR facilities and projects

4. CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL

4.1. Conventional CDR on land
- 4.1.1. Wetland and peatland restoration
- 4.1.2. Cropland, grassland, and agroforestry
4.2. Technological CDR Solutions
4.3. Main CDR methods
4.4. Novel CDR methods
4.5. Technology Readiness Level (TRL): Carbon Dioxide Removal Methods
4.6. Carbon Credits
- 4.6.1. CO2 Utilization
- 4.6.2. Biochar and Agricultural Products
- 4.6.3. Renewable Energy Generation
- 4.6.4. Ecosystem Services
4.7. Types of Carbon Credits
- 4.7.1. Voluntary Carbon Credits
- 4.7.2. Compliance Carbon Credits
- 4.7.3. Corporate commitments
- 4.7.4. Increasing government support and regulations
- 4.7.5. Advancements in carbon offset project verification and monitoring
- 4.7.6. Potential for blockchain technology in carbon credit trading
- 4.7.7. Prices
- 4.7.8. Buying and Selling Carbon Credits
  - 4.7.8.1. Carbon credit exchanges and trading platforms
  - 4.7.8.2. Over-the-counter (OTC) transactions
  - 4.7.8.3. Pricing mechanisms and factors affecting carbon credit prices
- 4.7.9. Certification
- 4.7.10. Challenges and risks
4.8. Value chain
4.9. Monitoring, reporting, and verification
4.10. Government policies
4.11. Bioenergy with Carbon Removal and Storage (BiCRS)
- 4.11.1. Advantages
- 4.11.2. Challenges
- 4.11.3. Costs
- 4.11.4. Feedstocks
4.12. BECCS
- 4.12.1. Technology overview
  - 4.12.1.1. Point Source Capture Technologies for BECCS
  - 4.12.1.2. Energy efficiency
  - 4.12.1.3. Heat generation
  - 4.12.1.4. Waste-to-Energy
  - 4.12.1.5. Blue Hydrogen Production
- 4.12.2. Biomass conversion
- 4.12.3. CO2 capture technologies
- 4.12.4. BECCS facilities
- 4.12.5. Cost analysis
- 4.12.6. BECCS carbon credits
- 4.12.7. Sustainability
- 4.12.8. Challenges
4.13. Enhanced Weathering
- 4.13.1. Overview
  - 4.13.1.1. Role of enhanced weathering in carbon dioxide removal
  - 4.13.1.2. CO2 mineralization
- 4.13.2. Enhanced Weathering Processes and Materials
- 4.13.3. Enhanced Weathering Applications
- 4.13.4. Trends and Opportunities
- 4.13.5. Challenges and Risks
- 4.13.6. Cost analysis
- 4.13.7. SWOT analysis
4.14. Afforestation/Reforestation
- 4.14.1. Overview
- 4.14.2. Carbon dioxide removal methods
- 4.14.3. Projects
- 4.14.4. Remote sensing in A/R
- 4.14.5. Robotics
- 4.14.6. Trends and Opportunities
- 4.14.7. Challenges and Risks
- 4.14.8. SWOT analysis
4.15. Soil carbon sequestration (SCS)
- 4.15.1. Overview
- 4.15.2. Practices
- 4.15.3. Measuring and Verifying
- 4.15.4. Trends and Opportunities
- 4.15.5. Carbon credits
- 4.15.6. Challenges and Risks
- 4.15.7. SWOT analysis
4.16. Biochar
- 4.16.1. What is biochar?
- 4.16.2. Carbon sequestration
- 4.16.3. Properties of biochar
- 4.16.4. Feedstocks
- 4.16.5. Production processes
  - 4.16.5.1. Sustainable production
  - 4.16.5.2. Pyrolysis
    - 4.16.5.2.1. Slow pyrolysis
    - 4.16.5.2.2. Fast pyrolysis
  - 4.16.5.3. Gasification
  - 4.16.5.4. Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC)
  - 4.16.5.5. Torrefaction
  - 4.16.5.6. Equipment manufacturers
- 4.16.6. Biochar pricing
- 4.16.7. Biochar carbon credits
  - 4.16.7.1. Overview
  - 4.16.7.2. Removal and reduction credits
  - 4.16.7.3. The advantage of biochar
  - 4.16.7.4. Prices
  - 4.16.7.5. Buyers of biochar credits
  - 4.16.7.6. Competitive materials and technologies
- 4.16.8. Bio-oil based CDR
- 4.16.9. Biomass burial for CO2 removal
- 4.16.10. Bio-based construction materials for CDR
- 4.16.11. SWOT analysis
4.17. Ocean-based CDR
- 4.17.1. Overview
- 4.17.2. Ocean pumps
- 4.17.3. CO2 capture from seawater
- 4.17.4. Ocean fertilisation
- 4.17.5. Coastal blue carbon
- 4.17.6. Algal cultivation
- 4.17.7. Artificial upwelling
- 4.17.8. MRV for marine CDR
- 4.17.9. Ocean alkalinisation
- 4.17.10. Ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE)
- 4.17.11. Electrochemical ocean alkalinity enhancement
- 4.17.12. Direct ocean capture technology
- 4.17.13. Artificial downwelling
- 4.17.14. Trends and Opportunities
- 4.17.15. Ocean-based carbon credits
- 4.17.16. Cost analysis
- 4.17.17. Challenges and Risks
- 4.17.18. SWOT analysis

5. CARBON DIOXIDE UTILIZATION

5.1. Overview
- 5.1.1. Current market status
5.2. Carbon utilization business models
- 5.2.1. Benefits of carbon utilization
- 5.2.2. Market challenges
5.3. Co2 utilization pathways
5.4. Conversion processes
- 5.4.1. Thermochemical
  - 5.4.1.1. Process overview
  - 5.4.1.2. Plasma-assisted CO2 conversion
- 5.4.2. Electrochemical conversion of CO2
  - 5.4.2.1. Process overview
- 5.4.3. Photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic conversion of CO2
- 5.4.4. Catalytic conversion of CO2
- 5.4.5. Biological conversion of CO2
- 5.4.6. Copolymerization of CO2
- 5.4.7. Mineral carbonation
5.5. CO2-Utilization in Fuels
- 5.5.1. Overview
- 5.5.2. Production routes
- 5.5.3. CO2 -fuels in road vehicles
- 5.5.4. CO2 -fuels in shipping
- 5.5.5. CO2 -fuels in aviation
- 5.5.6. Costs of e-fuel
- 5.5.7. Power-to-methane
  - 5.5.7.1. Thermocatalytic pathway to e-methane
  - 5.5.7.2. Biological fermentation
  - 5.5.7.3. Costs
- 5.5.8. Algae based biofuels
- 5.5.9. DAC for e-fuels
- 5.5.10. Syngas Production Options
- 5.5.11. CO2-fuels from solar
- 5.5.12. Companies
- 5.5.13. Challenges
- 5.5.14. Global market forecasts 2025-2045
5.6. CO2-Utilization in Chemicals
- 5.6.1. Overview
- 5.6.2. Carbon nanostructures
- 5.6.3. Scalability
- 5.6.4. Pathways
  - 5.6.4.1. Thermochemical
  - 5.6.4.2. Electrochemical
    - 5.6.4.2.1. Low-Temperature Electrochemical CO2 Reduction
    - 5.6.4.2.2. High-Temperature Solid Oxide Electrolyzers
    - 5.6.4.2.3. Coupling H2 and Electrochemical CO2 Reduction
  - 5.6.4.3. Microbial conversion
  - 5.6.4.4. Other
    - 5.6.4.4.1. Photocatalytic
    - 5.6.4.4.2. Plasma technology
- 5.6.5. Applications
  - 5.6.5.1. Urea production
  - 5.6.5.2. CO2-derived polymers
    - 5.6.5.2.1. Pathways
    - 5.6.5.2.2. Polycarbonate from CO2
    - 5.6.5.2.3. Methanol to olefins (polypropylene production)
    - 5.6.5.2.4. Ethanol to polymers
  - 5.6.5.3. Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing
- 5.6.6. Companies
- 5.6.7. Global market forecasts 2025-2045
5.7. CO2-Utilization in Construction and Building Materials
- 5.7.1. Overview
- 5.7.2. Market drivers
- 5.7.3. Key CO2 utilization technologies in construction
- 5.7.4. Carbonated aggregates
- 5.7.5. Additives during mixing
- 5.7.6. Concrete curing
- 5.7.7. Costs
- 5.7.8. Market trends and business models
- 5.7.9. Carbon credits
- 5.7.10. Companies
- 5.7.11. Challenges
- 5.7.12. Global market forecasts
5.8. CO2-Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting
- 5.8.1. Overview
- 5.8.2. CO2 utilization in biological processes
- 5.8.3. Applications
  - 5.8.3.1. Greenhouses
    - 5.8.3.1.1. CO2 enrichment
  - 5.8.3.2. Algae cultivation
    - 5.8.3.2.1. CO2-enhanced algae cultivation: open systems
    - 5.8.3.2.2. CO2-enhanced algae cultivation: closed systems
  - 5.8.3.3. Microbial conversion
  - 5.8.3.4. Food and feed production
- 5.8.4. Companies
- 5.8.5. Global market forecasts 2025-2045
5.9. CO2 Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery
- 5.9.1. Overview
  - 5.9.1.1. Process
  - 5.9.1.2. CO2 sources
- 5.9.2. CO2-EOR facilities and projects
- 5.9.3. Challenges
- 5.9.4. Global market forecasts 2025-2045
5.10. Enhanced mineralization
- 5.10.1. Advantages
- 5.10.2. In situ and ex-situ mineralization
- 5.10.3. Enhanced mineralization pathways
- 5.10.4. Challenges

6. CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE

6.1. Introduction
6.2. CO2 storage sites
- 6.2.1. Storage types for geologic CO2 storage
- 6.2.2. Oil and gas fields
- 6.2.3. Saline formations
- 6.2.4. Coal seams and shale
- 6.2.5. Basalts and ultra-mafic rocks
6.3. CO2 leakage
6.4. Global CO2 storage capacity
6.5. CO2 Storage Projects
6.6. CO2 -EOR
- 6.6.1. Description
- 6.6.2. Injected CO2
- 6.6.3. CO2 capture with CO2 -EOR facilities
- 6.6.4. Companies
- 6.6.5. Economics
6.7. Costs
6.8. Challenges

7. CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORTATION

7.1. Introduction
7.2. CO2 transportation methods and conditions
7.3. CO2 transportation by pipeline
7.4. CO2 transportation by ship
7.5. CO2 transportation by rail and truck
7.6. Cost analysis of different methods
7.7. Companies

8. COMPANY PROFILES (313 company profiles)

9. APPENDICES

9.1. Abbreviations
9.2. Research Methodology
9.3. Definition of Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS)
9.4. Technology Readiness Level (TRL)

10. REFERENCES

簡介目錄圖表

List of Tables

Table 1. Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) market drivers and trends
Table 2. Carbon capture, usage, and storage (CCUS) industry developments 2020-2024
Table 3. CCUS VC deals 2022-2024
Table 4. CCUS government funding and investment-10 year outlook
Table 5. Demonstration and commercial CCUS facilities in China
Table 6. Global commercial CCUS facilities-in operation
Table 7. Global commercial CCUS facilities-under development/construction
Table 8. Key market barriers for CCUS
Table 9. Key compliance carbon pricing initiatives around the world
Table 10. CCUS business models: full chain, part chain, and hubs and clusters
Table 11. CCUS capture capacity forecast by CO2 endpoint, Mtpa of CO2, to 2045
Table 12. Capture capacity by region to 2045, Mtpa
Table 13. CCUS revenue potential for captured CO2 offtaker, billion US $ to 2045
Table 14. CCUS capacity forecast by capture type, Mtpa of CO2, to 2045
Table 15. Point-source CCUS capture capacity forecast by CO2 source sector, Mtpa of CO2, to 2045
Table 16. CO2 utilization and removal pathways
Table 17. Approaches for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from point sources
Table 18. CO2 capture technologies
Table 19. Advantages and challenges of carbon capture technologies
Table 20. Overview of commercial materials and processes utilized in carbon capture
Table 21. Methods of CO2 transport
Table 22. Carbon capture, transport, and storage cost per unit of CO2
Table 23. Estimated capital costs for commercial-scale carbon capture
Table 24. Comparison of CO2 capture technologies
Table 25. Typical conditions and performance for different capture technologies
Table 26. PSCC technologies
Table 27. Point source examples
Table 28. Comparison of point-source CO2 capture systems
Table 29. Blue hydrogen projects
Table 30. Commercial CO2 capture systems for blue H2
Table 31. Market players in blue hydrogen
Table 32. CCUS Projects in the Cement Sector
Table 33. Carbon capture technologies in the cement sector
Table 34. Cost and technological status of carbon capture in the cement sector
Table 35. Assessment of carbon capture materials
Table 36. Chemical solvents used in post-combustion
Table 37. Comparison of key chemical solvent-based systems
Table 38. Chemical absorption solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects
Table 39.Comparison of key physical absorption solvents
Table 40.Physical solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects
Table 41.Emerging solvents for carbon capture
Table 42. Oxygen separation technologies for oxy-fuel combustion
Table 43. Large-scale oxyfuel CCUS cement projects
Table 44. Commercially available physical solvents for pre-combustion carbon capture
Table 45. Main capture processes and their separation technologies
Table 46. Absorption methods for CO2 capture overview
Table 47. Commercially available physical solvents used in CO2 absorption
Table 48. Adsorption methods for CO2 capture overview
Table 49. Solid sorbents explored for carbon capture
Table 50. Carbon-based adsorbents for CO2 capture
Table 51. Polymer-based adsorbents
Table 52. Solid sorbents for post-combustion CO2 capture
Table 53. Emerging Solid Sorbent Systems
Table 54. Membrane-based methods for CO2 capture overview
Table 55. Comparison of membrane materials for CCUS
Table 56.Commercial status of membranes in carbon capture
Table 57. Membranes for pre-combustion capture
Table 58. Status of cryogenic CO2 capture technologies
Table 59. Benefits and drawbacks of microalgae carbon capture
Table 60. Comparison of main separation technologies
Table 61. Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separation technologies
Table 62. Opportunities and Barriers by sector
Table 63. DAC technologies
Table 64. Advantages and disadvantages of DAC
Table 65. Advantages of DAC as a CO2 removal strategy
Table 66. Companies developing airflow equipment integration with DAC
Table 67. Companies developing Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) technologies
Table 68. Companies developing regeneration methods for DAC technologies
Table 69. DAC companies and technologies
Table 70. DAC technology developers and production
Table 71. DAC projects in development
Table 72. DACCS carbon removal capacity forecast (million metric tons of CO2 per year), 2024-2045, base case
Table 73. DACCS carbon removal capacity forecast (million metric tons of CO2 per year), 2030-2045, optimistic case
Table 74. Costs summary for DAC
Table 75. Typical cost contributions of the main components of a DACCS system
Table 76. Cost estimates of DAC
Table 77. Challenges for DAC technology
Table 78. DAC companies and technologies
Table 79. Example CO2 utilization pathways
Table 80. Markets for Direct Air Capture and Storage (DACCS)
Table 81. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels
Table 82. Microalgae products and prices
Table 83. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches
Table 84. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products
Table 85. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2
Table 86. CO2 utilization products developed by chemical and plastic producers
Table 87. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products
Table 88. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector
Table 89. Companies in CO2 derived building materials
Table 90. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials
Table 91. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting
Table 92. CO2 sequestering technologies and their use in food
Table 93. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production
Table 94.Market Drivers for Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR)
Table 95. CDR versus CCUS
Table 96. Status and Potential of CDR Technologies
Table 97. Main CDR methods
Table 98. Novel CDR Methods
Table 99.Carbon Dioxide Removal Technology Benchmarking
Table 100. Comparison of voluntary and compliance carbon credits
Table 101. DACCS carbon credit revenue forecast (million US$), 2024-2045
Table 102. Examples of government support and regulations
Table 103. Carbon credit prices
Table 104. Carbon credit prices by company and technology
Table 105. Carbon credit market sizes
Table 106. Carbon Credit Exchanges and Trading Platforms
Table 107. Challenges and Risks
Table 108. CDR Value Chain
Table 109. Feedstocks for Bioenergy with Carbon Removal and Storage (BiCRS):
Table 110. CO2 capture technologies for BECCS
Table 111. Existing and planned capacity for sequestration of biogenic carbon
Table 112. Existing facilities with capture and/or geologic sequestration of biogenic CO2
Table 113. Challenges of BECCS
Table 114.Comparison of enhanced weathering materials
Table 115. Enhanced Weathering Applications
Table 116. Trends and opportunities in enhanced weathering
Table 117. Challenges and risks in enhanced weathering
Table 118. Nature-based CDR approaches
Table 119. Comparison of A/R and BECCS Solutions
Table 120. Status of Forest Carbon Removal Projects
Table 121. Companies in robotics in afforestation/reforestation
Table 122. Comparison of A/R and BECCS
Table 123. Trends and Opportunities in afforestation/reforestation
Table 124. Challenges and risks in afforestation/reforestation
Table 125. Soil carbon sequestration practices
Table 126. Soil sampling and analysis methods
Table 127. Remote sensing and modeling techniques
Table 128. Carbon credit protocols and standards
Table 129. Trends and opportunities in soil carbon sequestration (SCS)
Table 130. Key aspects of soil carbon credits
Table 131. Challenges and Risks in SCS
Table 132. Summary of key properties of biochar
Table 133. Biochar physicochemical and morphological properties
Table 134. Biochar feedstocks-source, carbon content, and characteristics
Table 135. Biochar production technologies, description, advantages and disadvantages
Table 136. Comparison of slow and fast pyrolysis for biomass
Table 137. Comparison of thermochemical processes for biochar production
Table 138. Biochar production equipment manufacturers
Table 139. Competitive materials and technologies that can also earn carbon credits
Table 140. Bio-oil-based CDR pros and cons
Table 141. Ocean-based CDR methods
Table 142. Benchmarking of ocean-based CDR methods:
Table 143.Ocean-based CDR: biotic methods
Table 144. Technology in direct ocean capture
Table 145. Future direct ocean capture technologies
Table 146. Trends and opportunities in ocean-based CDR
Table 147. Challenges and risks in ocean-based CDR
Table 148. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$)
Table 149. Carbon utilization business models
Table 150. CO2 utilization and removal pathways
Table 151. Market challenges for CO2 utilization
Table 152. Example CO2 utilization pathways
Table 153. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages
Table 154. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages
Table 155. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages
Table 156. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers
Table 157. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies
Table 158. Comparison of emerging CO2 utilization applications
Table 159. Main routes to CO2-fuels
Table 160. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels
Table 161. Main routes to CO2 -fuels
Table 162.Comparison of e-fuels to fossil and biofuels
Table 163. Existing and future CO2-derived synfuels (kerosene, diesel, and gasoline) projects.. :
Table 164. CO2-Derived Methane Projects
Table 165. Power-to-Methane projects worldwide
Table 166. Power-to-Methane projects
Table 167. Microalgae products and prices
Table 168. Syngas Production Options for E-fuels
Table 169. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches
Table 170. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products
Table 171. CO2 utilization forecast for fuels by fuel type (million tonnes of CO2/year), 2025-2045
Table 172. Global revenue forecast for CO2-derived fuels by fuel type (million US$), 2025-2045
Table 173. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2
Table 174.CO2-derived Chemicals: Thermochemical Pathways
Table 175. Thermochemical Methods: CO2-derived Methanol
Table 176. CO2-derived Methanol Projects
Table 177. CO2-Derived Methanol: Economic and Market Analysis (Next 5-10 Years)
Table 178. Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Technologies
Table 179. Comparison of RWGS and SOEC Co-electrolysis Routes
Table 180. Cost Comparison of CO2 Electrochemical Technologies
Table 181. Technology Readiness Level (TRL): CO2U Chemicals
Table 182. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products
Table 183. CO2 utilization forecast in chemicals by end-use (million tonnes of CO2/year), 2025-2045
Table 184. Global revenue forecast for CO2-derived chemicals by end-use (million US$), 2025-2045
Table 185. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector
Table 186. Prefabricated versus ready-mixed concrete markets
Table 187. CO2 utilization in concrete curing or mixing
Table 188. CO2 utilization business models in building materials
Table 189. Companies in CO2 derived building materials
Table 190. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials
Table 191. CO2 utilization forecast in building materials by end-use (million tonnes of CO2/year), 2025-2045
Table 192. Global revenue forecast for CO2-derived building materials by product (million US$), 2025-2045
Table 193. Enrichment Technology
Table 194. Food and Feed Production from CO2
Table 195. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting
Table 196. CO2 utilization forecast in biological yield-boosting by end-use (million tonnes of CO2 per year), 2025-2045
Table 197. Global revenue forecast for CO2 use in biological yield-boosting by end-use (million US$), 2025-2045
Table 198. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production
Table 199. CO2 utilization forecast in enhanced oil recovery (million tonnes of CO2/year), 2025-2045
Table 200. Global revenue forecast for CO2-enhanced oil recovery (billion US$), 2025-2045
Table 201. CO2 EOR/Storage Challenges
Table 202. Storage and utilization of CO2
Table 203. Mechanisms of subsurface CO2 trapping
Table 204. Global depleted reservoir storage projects
Table 205. Global CO2 ECBM storage projects
Table 206. CO2 EOR/storage projects
Table 207. Global storage sites-saline aquifer projects
Table 208. Global storage capacity estimates, by region
Table 209. MRV Technologies and Costs in CO2 Storage
Table 210. Carbon storage challenges
Table 211. Status of CO2 Storage Projects
Table 212. Types of CO2 -EOR designs
Table 213. CO2 capture with CO2 -EOR facilities
Table 214. CO2 -EOR companies
Table 215. Phases of CO2 for transportation
Table 216. CO2 transportation methods and conditions
Table 217. Status of CO2 transportation methods in CCS projects
Table 218. CO2 pipelines Technical challenges
Table 219. Cost comparison of CO2 transportation methods
Table 220. CO2 transport operators
Table 221. List of abbreviations
Table 222. Technology Readiness Level (TRL) Examples

List of Figures

Figure 1. Carbon emissions by sector
Figure 2. Overview of CCUS market
Figure 3. CCUS business model
Figure 4. Pathways for CO2 use
Figure 5. Regional capacity share 2025-2035
Figure 6. Global investment in carbon capture 2010-2023, millions USD
Figure 7. Carbon Capture, Utilization, & Storage (CCUS) Market Map
Figure 8. CCS deployment projects, historical and to 2035
Figure 9. Existing and planned CCS projects
Figure 10. CCUS Value Chain
Figure 11. Schematic of CCUS process
Figure 12. Pathways for CO2 utilization and removal
Figure 13. A pre-combustion capture system
Figure 14. Carbon dioxide utilization and removal cycle
Figure 15. Various pathways for CO2 utilization
Figure 16. Example of underground carbon dioxide storage
Figure 17. Transport of CCS technologies
Figure 18. Railroad car for liquid CO2 transport
Figure 19. Estimated costs of capture of one metric ton of carbon dioxide (Co2) by sector
Figure 20. Cost of CO2 transported at different flowrates
Figure 21. Cost estimates for long-distance CO2 transport
Figure 22. CO2 capture and separation technology
Figure 23. Global capacity of point-source carbon capture and storage facilities
Figure 24. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2023
Figure 25. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2045
Figure 26. SMR process flow diagram of steam methane reforming with carbon capture and storage (SMR-CCS)
Figure 27. Process flow diagram of autothermal reforming with a carbon capture and storage (ATR-CCS) plant
Figure 28. POX process flow diagram
Figure 29. Process flow diagram for a typical SE-SMR
Figure 30. Post-combustion carbon capture process
Figure 31. Post-combustion CO2 Capture in a Coal-Fired Power Plant
Figure 32. Oxy-combustion carbon capture process
Figure 33. Process schematic of chemical looping
Figure 34. Liquid or supercritical CO2 carbon capture process
Figure 35. Pre-combustion carbon capture process
Figure 36. Amine-based absorption technology
Figure 37. Pressure swing absorption technology
Figure 38. Membrane separation technology
Figure 39. Liquid or supercritical CO2 (cryogenic) distillation
Figure 40. CryocapTM process
Figure 41. Calix advanced calcination reactor
Figure 42. LEILAC process
Figure 43. Fuel Cell CO2 Capture diagram
Figure 44. Microalgal carbon capture
Figure 45. Cost of carbon capture
Figure 46. CO2 capture capacity to 2030, MtCO2
Figure 47. Capacity of large-scale CO2 capture projects, current and planned vs. the Net Zero Scenario, 2020-2030
Figure 48. CO2 captured from air using liquid and solid sorbent DAC plants, storage, and reuse
Figure 49. Global CO2 capture from biomass and DAC in the Net Zero Scenario
Figure 50. Potential for DAC removal versus other carbon removal methods
Figure 51. DAC technologies
Figure 52. Schematic of Climeworks DAC system
Figure 53. Climeworks' first commercial direct air capture (DAC) plant, based in Hinwil, Switzerland
Figure 54. Flow diagram for solid sorbent DAC
Figure 55. Direct air capture based on high temperature liquid sorbent by Carbon Engineering
Figure 56. Global capacity of direct air capture facilities
Figure 57. Global map of DAC and CCS plants
Figure 58. Schematic of costs of DAC technologies
Figure 59. DAC cost breakdown and comparison
Figure 60. Operating costs of generic liquid and solid-based DAC systems
Figure 61. Co2 utilization pathways and products
Figure 62. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates
Figure 63. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel
Figure 64. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol
Figure 65. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c
Figure 66. Audi synthetic fuels
Figure 67. Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways
Figure 68. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials
Figure 69. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials
Figure 70. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector
Figure 71. Carbon8 Systems' ACT process
Figure 72. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process
Figure 73. Algal cultivation in the desert
Figure 74. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria
Figure 75. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR
Figure 76. Large CO2-EOR projects in different project stages by industry
Figure 77. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) process
Figure 78. SWOT analysis: enhanced weathering
Figure 79. SWOT analysis: afforestation/reforestation
Figure 80. SWOT analysis: SCS
Figure 81. Schematic of biochar production
Figure 82. Biochars from different sources, and by pyrolyzation at different temperatures
Figure 83. Compressed biochar
Figure 84. Biochar production diagram
Figure 85. Pyrolysis process and by-products in agriculture
Figure 86. SWOT analysis: Biochar for CDR
Figure 87. SWOT analysis: ocean-based CDR
Figure 88. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages
Figure 89. Applications for CO2
Figure 90. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector
Figure 91. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services
Figure 92. Co2 utilization pathways and products
Figure 93. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion
Figure 94. Electrochemical CO2 reduction products
Figure 95. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process
Figure 96. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels
Figure 97. Econic catalyst systems
Figure 98. Mineral carbonation processes
Figure 99. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates
Figure 100. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel
Figure 101. SWOT analysis: e-fuels
Figure 102. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol
Figure 103. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c
Figure 104. Audi synthetic fuels
Figure 105. Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways
Figure 106. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials
Figure 107. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials
Figure 108. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector
Figure 109. Carbon8 Systems' ACT process
Figure 110. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process
Figure 111. Algal cultivation in the desert
Figure 112. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria
Figure 113. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR
Figure 114. Large CO2-EOR projects in different project stages by industry
Figure 115. Carbon mineralization pathways
Figure 116. CO2 Storage Overview - Site Options
Figure 117. CO2 injection into a saline formation while producing brine for beneficial use
Figure 118. Subsurface storage cost estimation
Figure 119. Air Products production process
Figure 120. ALGIECEL PhotoBioReactor
Figure 121. Schematic of carbon capture solar project
Figure 122. Aspiring Materials method
Figure 123. Aymium's Biocarbon production
Figure 124. Capchar prototype pyrolysis kiln
Figure 125. Carbonminer technology
Figure 126. Carbon Blade system
Figure 127. CarbonCure Technology
Figure 128. Direct Air Capture Process
Figure 129. CRI process
Figure 130. PCCSD Project in China
Figure 131. Orca facility
Figure 132. Process flow scheme of Compact Carbon Capture Plant
Figure 133. Colyser process
Figure 134. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic
Figure 135. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer
Figure 136. Fuel Cell Carbon Capture
Figure 137. Topsoe's SynCORTM autothermal reforming technology
Figure 138. Carbon Capture balloon
Figure 139. Holy Grail DAC system
Figure 140. INERATEC unit
Figure 141. Infinitree swing method
Figure 142. Audi/Krajete unit
Figure 143. Made of Air's HexChar panels
Figure 144. Mosaic Materials MOFs
Figure 145. Neustark modular plant
Figure 146. OCOchem's Carbon Flux Electrolyzer
Figure 147. ZerCaLTM process
Figure 148. CCS project at Arthit offshore gas field
Figure 149. RepAir technology
Figure 150. Aker (SLB Capturi) carbon capture system
Figure 151. Soletair Power unit
Figure 152. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production
Figure 153. CALF-20 has been integrated into a rotating CO2 capture machine (left), which operates inside a CO2 plant module (right)
Figure 154. Takavator
Figure 155. O12 Reactor
Figure 156. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials
Figure 157. CO2 made car part
Figure 158. Molecular sieving membrane