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市場調查報告書
商品編碼
1530711

2030 年汽車半導體市場預測:按組件、車輛類型、燃料類型、應用和地區進行全球分析

Automotive Semiconductor Market Forecasts to 2030 - Global Analysis By Component, Vehicle Type (Passenger Car, Light Commercial Vehicle, Heavy Commercial and Other Vehicle Types), Fuel Type, Application and by Geography

出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 200+ Pages | 商品交期: 2-3個工作天內

價格

根據Stratistics MRC預測,2024年全球汽車半導體市場規模將達539.1億美元,預計2030年將達到1,069.8億美元,預測期內複合年成長率為12.1%。

汽車半導體對於現代汽車工業至關重要,因為它們為車輛控制和電子系統提供了機械基礎。資訊娛樂、ADAS(高級駕駛輔助系統)、電源管理、馬達控制和許多其他功能都是由這些專用半導體元件實現的。此外,隨著車輛變得更加電氣化和自動化,對滿足汽車標準並推動效率、安全性和整體車輛性能進步的可靠、高效半導體的需求不斷成長。

根據半導體產業協會的說法,半導體產業對於推動從消費性電子產品到汽車等各個領域的技術進步至關重要。

混合動力汽車和電動車的成長

向電動和混合動力汽車過渡過程中的有效電源管理和能量轉換需要專門的半導體解決方案。馬達控制單元、功率逆變器和電池管理系統都嚴重依賴半導體。此外,隨著電動車在世界上變得越來越普遍,對提高能源效率和性能的半導體技術的需求也在增加。

成本和整合複雜性

將尖端半導體技術整合到汽車中既昂貴又複雜。成本問題必須與汽車製造商對尖端功能的需求之間取得平衡,特別是當半導體元件變得更加複雜和專業化時。此外,將這些技術融入目前車輛架構的複雜性也會導致相容性和可靠性問題。

聯網汽車技術的發展

車內連接和車對萬物 (V2X)通訊等聯網汽車技術的激增為半導體成長帶來了新的機會。在無線通訊、GPS 導航、網路安全和資訊娛樂系統中,這些技術需要可靠的半導體解決方案。此外,隨著消費者需要更智慧和整合的車輛功能,半導體製造商可以透過創建專門的解決方案從這些機會中受益。

價格壓力與激烈競爭

在競爭激烈的汽車半導體產業,國內外競爭者眾多,都在爭取市場佔有率。激烈的競爭可能會導致定價壓力和利潤下降,尤其是在供需動態變化的情況下。此外,為了在競爭激烈的行業中保持盈利,半導體製造商必須不斷創新,提高營運效率,並使自己與競爭對手區分開來。

COVID-19 的影響:

COVID-19 大流行改變了需求和生產動態並擾亂了供應鏈,對汽車半導體市場產生了重大影響。限制和關閉導致製造設施暫時關閉,導致半導體產量減少並造成供不應求。由於生產線停工和消費者信心下降,整個汽車產業的銷量大幅下降。此外,數位服務的使用和在家工作的增加增加了對用於資訊娛樂和連接解決方案的汽車半導體的需求。

預計類比IC領域在預測期內將是最大的

預計汽車半導體市場將由類比IC(積體電路)領域主導。許多汽車應用,例如電源管理、訊號處理和感測器介面,都依賴類比積體電路 (IC)。這些部件是資訊娛樂、電池管理和引擎控制單元等各種系統運作所必需的。此外,溫度、壓力和速度等現實訊號可以透過類比積體電路 (IC) 轉換為可由車輛電控系統處理的數位資料。

預計乘用車領域在預測期內複合年成長率最高

在汽車半導體市場中,乘用車領域預計複合年成長率最高。這一成長是由乘用車中資訊娛樂、連接、ADAS(高級駕駛員輔助系統)和電氣化的日益使用所推動的。汽車製造商正在利用日益先進的半導體技術來提高車輛性能、安全性和用戶體驗,以滿足消費者對更安全、更互聯、更環保的汽車日益成長的需求。此外,向電動車 (EV) 的轉變進一步推動了這一成長,因為乘用車需要先進的半導體解決方案來進行馬達控制、功率轉換和電池管理。

佔比最大的地區:

亞太地區佔據汽車半導體市場最大佔有率。主要汽車製造商和半導體公司位於中國、日本和韓國等汽車產業重要樞紐國家。該地區發達的勞動力、政府對電子和汽車行業的大力支持以及強大的基礎設施都促進了市場的成長。此外,由於電動車的快速普及、自動駕駛技術新興市場的開拓以及消費者對尖端​​車載技術的需求,亞太地區在全球汽車半導體市場中佔有很大佔有率。

複合年成長率最高的地區:

在汽車半導體市場中,北美地區預計複合年成長率最高。對電動車的強勁需求、自動駕駛技術的顯著進步以及汽車資訊娛樂和 ADAS(高級駕駛輔助系統)的不斷普及是這一成長的主要驅動力。這一成長是由對汽車創新的大量投資、領先技術公司的存在以及強大的研發能力所推動的。此外,政府對電動車的激勵獎勵以及車輛連接的發展也在推動市場發展。

免費客製化服務:

訂閱此報告的客戶可以存取以下免費自訂選項之一:

  • 公司簡介
    • 其他市場參與者的綜合分析(最多 3 家公司)
    • 主要企業SWOT分析(最多3家企業)
  • 區域分割
    • 根據客戶興趣對主要國家的市場估計、預測和複合年成長率(註:基於可行性檢查)
  • 競爭基準化分析
    • 根據產品系列、地理分佈和策略聯盟對主要企業基準化分析

目錄

第1章執行摘要

第2章 前言

  • 概述
  • 相關利益者
  • 調查範圍
  • 調查方法
    • 資料探勘
    • 資料分析
    • 資料檢驗
    • 研究途徑
  • 研究資訊來源
    • 主要研究資訊來源
    • 二次研究資訊來源
    • 先決條件

第3章市場趨勢分析

  • 促進因素
  • 抑制因素
  • 機會
  • 威脅
  • 應用分析
  • 新興市場
  • COVID-19 的影響

第4章波特五力分析

  • 供應商的議價能力
  • 買方議價能力
  • 替代品的威脅
  • 新進入者的威脅
  • 競爭公司之間的敵對關係

第5章全球汽車半導體市場:依組成部分

  • 處理器
  • 微控制器
  • 類比IC
  • 分離式功率元件
  • 感應器
  • 儲存裝置
  • 照明設備
  • 其他組件

第6章全球汽車半導體市場:依車型分類

  • 客車
  • 輕型商用車(LCV)
  • 重型商用車(HCV)
  • 其他車型

第7章全球汽車半導體市場:依燃料類型

  • 汽油
  • 柴油引擎
  • 電動車
    • 混合動力電動車(HEV)
    • 插電混合(PHEV)
    • 純電動車(BEV)

第8章全球汽車半導體市場:依應用分類

  • 動力傳動系統
  • ADAS(進階駕駛輔助系統)(ADAS)
  • 安全
  • 車身電子產品
  • 底盤
  • 遠端資訊處理和資訊娛樂
  • 其他用途

第9章全球汽車半導體市場:按地區

  • 北美洲
    • 美國
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 歐洲
    • 德國
    • 英國
    • 義大利
    • 法國
    • 西班牙
    • 其他歐洲國家
  • 亞太地區
    • 日本
    • 中國
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 紐西蘭
    • 韓國
    • 其他亞太地區
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 南美洲其他地區
  • 中東/非洲
    • 沙烏地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公國
    • 卡達
    • 南非
    • 其他中東和非洲

第10章 主要進展

  • 合約、夥伴關係、協作和合資企業
  • 收購和合併
  • 新產品發布
  • 業務拓展
  • 其他關鍵策略

第11章 公司概況

  • STMicroelectronics
  • Renesas Electronics Corporation
  • Micron Technology, Inc
  • Analog Devices Inc.
  • NXP Semiconductors NV
  • TE Connectivity
  • Denso
  • Texas Instruments Inc.
  • ON Semiconductor Corporation
  • Infineon Technologies AG
  • ROHM Semiconductor
  • Semiconductor Components Industries, LLC
  • Magna International
  • Allegro Microsystems
  • Robert Bosch GmbH
  • Toshiba Corporation
Product Code: SMRC26823

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Automotive Semiconductor Market is accounted for $53.91 billion in 2024 and is expected to reach $106.98 billion by 2030 growing at a CAGR of 12.1% during the forecast period. Automotive semiconductors are essential to the modern automobile industry because they provide the mechanical foundation for control and electronics systems in cars. Numerous functions are made possible by these specialized semiconductor components, including infotainment, advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS), power management, and motor control. Moreover, the need for reliable, efficient semiconductors that meet automotive standards is growing as cars become more electrified and autonomous, which is propelling advancements in efficiency, safety, and overall vehicle performance.

According to the Semiconductor Industry Association, The semiconductor industry is pivotal in driving technological advancements across various sectors, from consumer electronics to automotive and beyond.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Growth of hybrid and electric vehicles

Specialized semiconductor solutions are required for effective power management and energy conversion in the transition to electric and hybrid vehicles. Electric motor control units, power inverters, and battery management systems all depend heavily on semiconductors. Additionally, the demand for semiconductor technologies that can increase energy efficiency and performance is rising along with the global adoption of electric vehicles.

Restraint:

Expense and integration complexity

The integration of cutting-edge semiconductor technologies into automobiles is expensive and complex. Cost concerns must be balanced with the requirement for cutting-edge features by automotive manufacturers, particularly as semiconductor components get more complex and specialized. Furthermore, compatibility and reliability issues may arise from the intricacy of incorporating these technologies into current car architectures.

Opportunity:

Developments in connected vehicle technology

The proliferation of connected car technologies, such as in-vehicle connectivity and vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication, presents new opportunities for semiconductor growth. For wireless communication, GPS navigation, cybersecurity, and infotainment systems, these technologies demand reliable semiconductor solutions. Moreover, semiconductor manufacturers can benefit from these opportunities by creating specialized solutions as consumers demand more intelligent and integrated vehicle features.

Threat:

Pricing pressures and intense competition

There are many national and international competitors fighting for market share in the fiercely competitive automotive semiconductor industry. Pricing pressures and margin erosion can result from intense competition, particularly when demand and supply dynamics are changing. Additionally, to stay profitable in a cutthroat industry, semiconductor makers need to constantly innovate, boost operational effectiveness, and set themselves apart from the competition.

Covid-19 Impact:

The COVID-19 pandemic had a major effect on the automotive semiconductor market by changing demand and production dynamics and upsetting the supply chain. Restrictions and lockdowns caused manufacturing facilities to temporarily close, which decreased semiconductor production and resulted in a shortage of supply. As production lines stopped and consumer confidence declined, the automotive industry as a whole saw a sharp decline in sales. Furthermore, the need for car semiconductors for infotainment and connectivity solutions increased as people shifted to using digital services and working from home more often.

The Analog IC segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

It is projected that the automotive semiconductor market will be dominated by the analog ICs (Integrated Circuits) segment. Many automotive applications, such as power management, signal processing, and sensor interfacing, depend on analog integrated circuits (ICs). These parts are necessary for the operation of many different systems, including infotainment, battery management, and engine control units. Moreover, real-world signals, such as temperature, pressure, and speed, can be converted by analog integrated circuits (ICs) into digital data that the electronic control units in vehicles can process.

The Passenger Car segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

In the automotive semiconductor market, the passenger car segment is projected to have the highest CAGR. The increasing use of infotainment, connectivity, advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), and electrification in passenger cars is what is fueling this growth. Automakers are incorporating increasingly advanced semiconductor technologies to improve vehicle performance, safety, and user experience in response to growing consumer demand for safer, more connected, and environmentally friendly vehicles. Additionally, this growth is further fueled by the shift to electric vehicles (EVs), since passenger cars need sophisticated semiconductor solutions for motor control, power conversion, and battery management.

Region with largest share:

The Asia-Pacific region holds the largest share of the automotive semiconductor market. Leading automakers and semiconductor firms are based in nations like China, Japan, and South Korea, which are important automotive hubs. The region's well-developed workforce, strong government support for the electronics and automotive industries, and robust infrastructure all contribute to the market's growth. Furthermore, the significant share of Asia-Pacific in the global automotive semiconductor market is also attributed to the region's quick adoption of electric vehicles, developments in autonomous driving technologies, and rising consumer demand for cutting-edge in-car technologies.

Region with highest CAGR:

In the automotive semiconductor market, the North American region is anticipated to have the highest CAGR. The strong demand for electric vehicles, the considerable progress made in autonomous driving technologies, and the growing incorporation of infotainment and advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) in automobiles are the main drivers of this growth. This growth is driven by significant investments in automotive innovation, the presence of leading technology companies, and strong research and development capabilities. Additionally, driving the market are encouraging government policies and incentives for electric vehicles, as well as developments in vehicle connectivity.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players in Automotive Semiconductor market include STMicroelectronics, Renesas Electronics Corporation, Micron Technology, Inc, Analog Devices Inc., NXP Semiconductors N.V, TE Connectivity, Denso, Texas Instruments Inc., ON Semiconductor Corporation, Infineon Technologies AG, ROHM Semiconductor, Semiconductor Components Industries, LLC, Magna International, Allegro Microsystems, Robert Bosch GmbH and Toshiba Corporation.

Key Developments:

In June 2024, Renesas Electronics Corporation, a premier supplier of advanced semiconductor solutions, and the Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad (IITH) have signed a three-year memorandum of understanding (MOU) for research and collaboration in the field of VLSI and embedded semiconductor systems.

In April 2024, STMicroelectronics, , a global semiconductor leader serving customers across the spectrum of electronics applications, and Centrica Energy Trading A/S announced that they have signed a ten-year Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) for the supply of renewable energy to its operations in Italy, starting January 2025. The agreement is based on the sale by Centrica of approximately 61 GWh of renewable energy per year, produced by a new solar farm in Italy.

In February 2024, Toshiba Energy Systems and Solutions Corporation and Bekaert, have entered into a global partnership which includes a strategic cooperation agreement, and a manufacturing technology license for Membrane Electrode Assemblies (MEA), a key component for Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzers that will help to accelerate the advance towards green hydrogen production.

Components Covered:

  • Processor
  • Microcontrollers
  • Analog IC
  • Discrete Power Device
  • Sensors
  • Memory Devices
  • Lighting Device
  • Other Components

Vehicle Types Covered:

  • Passenger Car
  • Light Commercial Vehicle (LCV)
  • Heavy Commercial (HCV)
  • Other Vehicle Types

Fuel Types Covered:

  • Gasoline
  • Diesel
  • Electric Vehicle

Applications Covered:

  • Powertrain
  • Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS)
  • Safety
  • Body Electronics
  • Chassis
  • Telematics and Infotainment
  • Other Applications

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2022, 2023, 2024, 2026, and 2030
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 Application Analysis
  • 3.7 Emerging Markets
  • 3.8 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market, By Component

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Processor
  • 5.3 Microcontrollers
  • 5.4 Analog IC
  • 5.5 Discrete Power Device
  • 5.6 Sensors
  • 5.7 Memory Devices
  • 5.8 Lighting Device
  • 5.9 Other Components

6 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market, By Vehicle Type

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Passenger Car
  • 6.3 Light Commercial Vehicle (LCV)
  • 6.4 Heavy Commercial (HCV)
  • 6.5 Other Vehicle Types

7 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market, By Fuel Type

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Gasoline
  • 7.3 Diesel
  • 7.4 Electric Vehicle
    • 7.4.1 Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
    • 7.4.2 Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)
    • 7.4.3 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)

8 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market, By Application

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Powertrain
  • 8.3 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS)
  • 8.4 Safety
  • 8.5 Body Electronics
  • 8.6 Chassis
  • 8.7 Telematics and Infotainment
  • 8.8 Other Applications

9 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market, By Geography

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 North America
    • 9.2.1 US
    • 9.2.2 Canada
    • 9.2.3 Mexico
  • 9.3 Europe
    • 9.3.1 Germany
    • 9.3.2 UK
    • 9.3.3 Italy
    • 9.3.4 France
    • 9.3.5 Spain
    • 9.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 9.4 Asia Pacific
    • 9.4.1 Japan
    • 9.4.2 China
    • 9.4.3 India
    • 9.4.4 Australia
    • 9.4.5 New Zealand
    • 9.4.6 South Korea
    • 9.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 9.5 South America
    • 9.5.1 Argentina
    • 9.5.2 Brazil
    • 9.5.3 Chile
    • 9.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 9.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 9.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 9.6.2 UAE
    • 9.6.3 Qatar
    • 9.6.4 South Africa
    • 9.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

10 Key Developments

  • 10.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 10.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 10.3 New Product Launch
  • 10.4 Expansions
  • 10.5 Other Key Strategies

11 Company Profiling

  • 11.1 STMicroelectronics
  • 11.2 Renesas Electronics Corporation
  • 11.3 Micron Technology, Inc
  • 11.4 Analog Devices Inc.
  • 11.5 NXP Semiconductors N.V.
  • 11.6 TE Connectivity
  • 11.7 Denso
  • 11.8 Texas Instruments Inc.
  • 11.9 ON Semiconductor Corporation
  • 11.10 Infineon Technologies AG
  • 11.11 ROHM Semiconductor
  • 11.12 Semiconductor Components Industries, LLC
  • 11.13 Magna International
  • 11.14 Allegro Microsystems
  • 11.15 Robert Bosch GmbH
  • 11.16 Toshiba Corporation

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Region (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Component (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Processor (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Microcontrollers (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Analog IC (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Discrete Power Device (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Sensors (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Memory Devices (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Lighting Device (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Other Components (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Vehicle Type (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Passenger Car (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Light Commercial Vehicle (LCV) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Heavy Commercial (HCV) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Other Vehicle Types (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Fuel Type (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Gasoline (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Diesel (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Electric Vehicle (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 21 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 22 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 23 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Application (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 24 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Powertrain (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 25 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 26 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Safety (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 27 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Body Electronics (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 28 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Chassis (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 29 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Telematics and Infotainment (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 30 Global Automotive Semiconductor Market Outlook, By Other Applications (2022-2030) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.